INTWOVOLUMES

VOLUMEI。

PREFACETOTHESECONDEDITION。

Duringthesevenyearswhichhaveelapsedsincethepublicationin1868ofthefirsteditionofthisWork，Ihavecontinuedtoattendtothesamesubjects，asfaraslayinmypower;andIhavethusaccumulatedalargebodyofadditionalfacts，chieflythroughthekindnessofmanycorrespondents。OfthesefactsIhavebeenableheretouseonlythosewhichseemedtomethemoreimportant。Ihaveomittedsomestatements，andcorrectedsomeerrors，thediscoveryofwhichIowetomyreviewers。Manyadditionalreferenceshavebeengiven。Theeleventhchapter，andthatonPangenesis，arethosewhichhavebeenmostaltered，partshavingbeenre—

modelled;butIwillgivealistofthemoreimportantalterationsforthesakeofthosewhomaypossessthefirsteditionofthisbook。

CONTENTS。

INTRODUCTION。

CHAPTER1。I。

DOMESTICDOGSANDCATS。

ANCIENTVARIETIESOFTHEDOG——RESEMBLANCEOFDOMESTICDOGSINVARIOUS

COUNTRIESTONATIVECANINESPECIES——ANIMALSNOTACQUAINTEDWITHMANAT

FIRSTFEARLESS——DOGSRESEMBLINGWOLVESANDJACKALS——HABITOFBARKING

ACQUIREDANDLOST——FERALDOGS——TAN—COLOUREDEYE—SPOTS——PERIODOFGESTATION—

—OFFENSIVEODOUR——FERTILITYOFTHERACESWHENCROSSED——DIFFERENCESINTHE

SEVERALRACESINPARTDUETODESCENTFROMDISTINCTSPECIES——DIFFERENCESIN

THESKULLANDTEETH——DIFFERENCESINTHEBODY，INCONSTITUTION——FEW

IMPORTANTDIFFERENCESHAVEBEENFIXEDBYSELECTION——DIRECTACTIONOF

CLIMATE——WATER—DOGSWITHPALMATEDFEET——HISTORYOFTHECHANGESWHICH

CERTAINENGLISHRACESOFTHEDOGHAVEGRADUALLYUNDERGONETHROUGH

SELECTION——EXTINCTIONOFTHELESSIMPROVEDSUB—BREEDS。

CATS，CROSSEDWITHSEVERALSPECIES——DIFFERENTBREEDSFOUNDONLYIN

SEPARATEDCOUNTRIES——DIRECTEFFECTSOFTHECONDITIONSOFLIFE——FERALCATS——

INDIVIDUALVARIABILITY。

CHAPTER1。II。

HORSESANDASSES。

HORSE——DIFFERENCESINTHEBREEDS——INDIVIDUALVARIABILITYOF——DIRECTEFFECTS

OFTHECONDITIONSOFLIFE——CANWITHSTANDMUCHCOLD——BREEDSMUCHMODIFIEDBY

SELECTION——COLOURSOFTHEHORSE——DAPPLING——DARKSTRIPESONTHESPINE，LEGS，SHOULDERS，ANDFOREHEAD——DUN—COLOUREDHORSESMOSTFREQUENTLYSTRIPED——

STRIPESPROBABLYDUETOREVERSIONTOTHEPRIMITIVESTATEOFTHEHORSE。

ASSES——BREEDSOF——COLOUROF——LEG—ANDSHOULDER—STRIPES——SHOULDER—STRIPES

SOMETIMESABSENT，SOMETIMESFORKED。

CHAPTER1。III。

PIGS——CATTLE——SHEEP——GOATS。

PIGSBELONGTOTWODISTINCTTYPES，SUSSCROFAANDINDICUS——TORFSCHWEIN——

JAPANPIGS——FERTILITYOFCROSSEDPIGS——CHANGESINTHESKULLOFTHEHIGHLY

CULTIVATEDRACES——CONVERGENCEOFCHARACTER——GESTATION——SOLID—HOOFEDSWINE——

CURIOUSAPPENDAGESTOTHEJAWS——DECREASEINSIZEOFTHETUSKS——YOUNGPIGS

LONGITUDINALLYSTRIPED——FERALPIGS——CROSSEDBREEDS。

CATTLE——ZEBUADISTINCTSPECIES——EUROPEANCATTLEPROBABLYDESCENDEDFROM

THREEWILDFORMS——ALLTHERACESNOWFERTILETOGETHER——BRITISHPARKCATTLE——

ONTHECOLOUROFTHEABORIGINALSPECIES——CONSTITUTIONALDIFFERENCES——SOUTH

AFRICANRACES——SOUTHAMERICANRACES——NIATACATTLE——ORIGINOFTHEVARIOUS

RACESOFCATTLE。

SHEEP——REMARKABLERACESOF——VARIATIONSATTACHEDTOTHEMALESEX——

ADAPTATIONSTOVARIOUSCONDITIONS——GESTATIONOF——CHANGESINTHEWOOL——SEMI—

MONSTROUSBREEDS。

GOATS——REMARKABLEVARIATIONSOF。

CHAPTER1。IV。

DOMESTICRABBITS。

DOMESTICRABBITSDESCENDEDFROMTHECOMMONWILDRABBIT——ANCIENT

DOMESTICATION——ANCIENTSELECTION——LARGELOP—EAREDRABBITS——VARIOUSBREEDS——

FLUCTUATINGCHARACTERS——ORIGINOFTHEHIMALAYANBREED——CURIOUSCASEOF

INHERITANCE——FERALRABBITSINJAMAICAANDTHEFALKLANDISLANDS——PORTOSANTO

FERALRABBITS——OSTEOLOGICALCHARACTERS——SKULL——SKULLOFHALF—LOPRABBITS——

VARIATIONSINTHESKULLANALOGOUSTODIFFERENCESINDIFFERENTSPECIESOF

HARES——VERTEBRAE——STERNUM——SCAPULA——EFFECTSOFUSEANDDISUSEONTHE

PROPORTIONSOFTHELIMBSANDBODY——CAPACITYOFTHESKULLANDREDUCEDSIZE

OFTHEBRAIN——SUMMARYONTHEMODIFICATIONSOFDOMESTICATEDRABBITS。

CHAPTER1。V。

DOMESTICPIGEONS。

ENUMERATIONANDDESCRIPTIONOFTHESEVERALBREEDS——INDIVIDUALVARIABILITY——

VARIATIONSOFAREMARKABLENATURE——OSTEOLOGICALCHARACTERS:SKULL，LOWER

JAW，NUMBEROFVERTEBRAE——CORRELATIONOFGROWTH:TONGUEWITHBEAK;EYELIDS

ANDNOSTRILSWITHWATTLEDSKIN——NUMBEROFWING—FEATHERSANDLENGTHOFWING—

—COLOURANDDOWN——WEBBEDANDFEATHEREDFEET——ONTHEEFFECTSOFDISUSE——

LENGTHOFFEETINCORRELATIONWITHLENGTHOFBEAK——LENGTHOFSTERNUM，SCAPULA，ANDFURCULUM——LENGTHOFWINGS——SUMMARYONTHEPOINTSOFDIFFERENCE

INTHESEVERALBREEDS。

CHAPTER1。VI。

PIGEONS——continued。

ONTHEABORIGINALPARENT—STOCKOFTHESEVERALDOMESTICRACES——HABITSOF

LIFE——WILDRACESOFTHEROCK—PIGEON——DOVECOTE—PIGEONS——PROOFSOFTHE

DESCENTOFTHESEVERALRACESFROMCOLUMBALIVIA——FERTILITYOFTHERACES

WHENCROSSED——REVERSIONTOTHEPLUMAGEOFTHEWILDROCK—PIGEON——

CIRCUMSTANCESFAVOURABLETOTHEFORMATIONOFTHERACES——ANTIQUITYAND

HISTORYOFTHEPRINCIPALRACES——MANNEROFTHEIRFORMATION——SELECTION——

UNCONSCIOUSSELECTION——CARETAKENBYFANCIERSINSELECTINGTHEIRBIRDS——

SLIGHTLYDIFFERENTSTRAINSGRADUALLYCHANGEINTOWELL—MARKEDBREEDS——

EXTINCTIONOFINTERMEDIATEFORMS——CERTAINBREEDSREMAINPERMANENT，WHILST

OTHERSCHANGE——SUMMARY。

CHAPTER1。VII。

FOWLS。

BRIEFDESCRIPTIONSOFTHECHIEFBREEDS——ARGUMENTSINFAVOUROFTHEIR

DESCENTFROMSEVERALSPECIES——ARGUMENTSINFAVOUROFALLTHEBREEDSHAVING

DESCENDEDFROMGALLUSBANKIVA——REVERSIONTOTHEPARENT—STOCKINCOLOUR——

ANALOGOUSVARIATIONS——ANCIENTHISTORYOFTHEFOWL——EXTERNALDIFFERENCES

BETWEENTHESEVERALBREEDS——EGGS——CHICKENS——SECONDARYSEXUALCHARACTERS——

WING—ANDTAIL—FEATHERS，VOICE，DISPOSITION，ETC。——OSTEOLOGICALDIFFERENCES

INTHESKULL，VERTEBRAE，ETC。——EFFECTSOFUSEANDDISUSEONCERTAINPARTS——

CORRELATIONOFGROWTH。

CHAPTER1。VIII。

DUCK——GOOSE——PEACOCK——TURKEY——GUINEA—FOWL——CANARY—BIRD——GOLD—FISH——HIVE—

BEES——SILK—MOTHS。

DUCKS，SEVERALBREEDSOF——PROGRESSOFDOMESTICATION——ORIGINOFFROMTHE

COMMONWILD—DUCK——DIFFERENCESINTHEDIFFERENTBREEDS——OSTEOLOGICAL

DIFFERENCES——EFFECTSOFUSEANDDISUSEONTHELIMB—BONES。

GOOSE，ANCIENTLYDOMESTICATED——LITTLEVARIATIONOF——SEBASTOPOLBREED。

PEACOCK，ORIGINOFBLACK—SHOULDEREDBREED。

TURKEY，BREEDSOF——CROSSEDWITHTHEUNITEDSTATESSPECIES——EFFECTSOF

CLIMATEON。

GUINEA—FOWL，CANARY—BIRD，GOLD—FISH，HIVE—BEE。

SILK—MOTHS，SPECIESANDBREEDSOF——ANCIENTLYDOMESTICATED——CAREINTHEIR

SELECTION——DIFFERENCESINTHEDIFFERENTRACES——INTHEEGG，CATERPILLAR，AND

COCOONSTATES——INHERITANCEOFCHARACTERS——IMPERFECTWINGS——LOSTINSTINCTS——

CORRELATEDCHARACTERS。

CHAPTER1。IX。

CULTIVATEDPLANTS:CEREALANDCULINARYPLANTS。

PRELIMINARYREMARKSONTHENUMBERANDPARENTAGEOFCULTIVATEDPLANTS——FIRST

STEPSINCULTIVATION——GEOGRAPHICALDISTRIBUTIONOFCULTIVATEDPLANTS。

CEREALIA——DOUBTSONTHENUMBEROFSPECIES——WHEAT:VARIETIESOF——INDIVIDUAL

VARIABILITY——CHANGEDHABITS——SELECTION——ANCIENTHISTORYOFTHEVARIETIES——

MAIZE:GREATVARIATIONOF——DIRECTACTIONOFCLIMATEON。

CULINARYPLANTS——CABBAGES:VARIETIESOF，INFOLIAGEANDSTEMS，BUTNOTIN

OTHERPARTS——PARENTAGEOF——OTHERSPECIESOFBRASSICA——PEAS:AMOUNTOF

DIFFERENCEINTHESEVERALKINDS，CHIEFLYINTHEPODSANDSEED——SOME

VARIETIESCONSTANT，SOMEHIGHLYVARIABLE——DONOTINTERCROSS——BEANS——

POTATOES:NUMEROUSVARIETIESOF——DIFFERLITTLEEXCEPTINTHETUBERS——

CHARACTERSINHERITED。

CHAPTER1。X。

PLANTScontinued——FRUITS——ORNAMENTALTREES——FLOWERS。

FRUITS——GRAPES——VARYINODDANDTRIFLINGPARTICULARS——MULBERRY——THEORANGE

GROUP——SINGULARRESULTSFROMCROSSING——PEACHANDNECTARINE——BUD—VARIATION——

ANALOGOUSVARIATION——RELATIONTOTHEALMOND——APRICOT——PLUMS——VARIATIONIN

THEIRSTONES——CHERRIES——SINGULARVARIETIESOF——APPLE——PEAR——STRAWBERRY——

INTERBLENDINGOFTHEORIGINALFORMS——GOOSEBERRY——STEADYINCREASEINSIZEOF

THEFRUIT——VARIETIESOF——WALNUT——NUT——CUCURBITACEOUSPLANTS——WONDERFUL

VARIATIONOF。

ORNAMENTALTREES——THEIRVARIATIONINDEGREEANDKIND——ASH—TREE——SCOTCH—FIR—

—HAWTHORN。

FLOWERS——MULTIPLEORIGINOFMANYKINDS——VARIATIONINCONSTITUTIONAL

PECULIARITIES——KINDOFVARIATION——ROSES——SEVERALSPECIESCULTIVATED——PANSY—

—DAHLIA——HYACINTH——HISTORYANDVARIATIONOF。

CHAPTER1。XI。

ONBUD—VARIATION，ANDONCERTAINANOMALOUSMODESOFREPRODUCTIONAND

VARIATION。

BUD—VARIATIONINTHEPEACH，PLUM，CHERRY，VINE，GOOSEBERRY，CURRANT，AND

BANANA，ASSHOWNBYTHEMODIFIEDFRUIT——INFLOWERS:CAMELLIAS，AZALEAS，CHRYSANTHEMUMS，ROSES，ETC。——ONTHERUNNINGOFTHECOLOURINCARNATIONS

——BUD—VARIATIONSINLEAVES——VARIATIONSBYSUCKERS，TUBERS，ANDBULBS——ON

THEBREAKINGOFTULIPS——BUD—VARIATIONSGRADUATEINTOCHANGESCONSEQUENTON

CHANGEDCONDITIONSOFLIFE——GRAFT—HYBRIDS——ONTHESEGREGATIONOFTHE

PARENTALCHARACTERSINSEMINALHYBRIDSBYBUD—VARIATION——ONTHEDIRECTOR

IMMEDIATEACTIONOFFOREIGNPOLLENONTHEMOTHER—PLANT——ONTHEEFFECTSOFA

PREVIOUSIMPREGNATIONONTHESUBSEQUENTOFFSPRINGOFFEMALEANIMALS——

CONCLUSIONANDSUMMARY。

CHAPTER1。XII。

INHERITANCE。

WONDERFULNATUREOFINHERITANCE——PEDIGREESOFOURDOMESTICATEDANIMALS——

INHERITANCENOTDUETOCHANCE——TRIFLINGCHARACTERSINHERITED——DISEASES

INHERITED——PECULIARITIESINTHEEYEINHERITED——DISEASESINTHEHORSE——

LONGEVITYANDVIGOUR——ASYMMETRICALDEVIATIONSOFSTRUCTURE——POLYDACTYLISM

ANDREGROWTHOFSUPERNUMERARYDIGITSAFTERAMPUTATION——CASESOFSEVERAL

CHILDRENSIMILARLYAFFECTEDFROMNON—AFFECTEDPARENTS——WEAKANDFLUCTUATING

INHERITANCE:INWEEPINGTREES，INDWARFNESS，COLOUROFFRUITANDFLOWERS——

COLOUROFHORSES——NON—INHERITANCEINCERTAINCASES——INHERITANCEOF

STRUCTUREANDHABITSOVERBORNEBYHOSTILECONDITIONSOFLIFE，BY

INCESSANTLYRECURRINGVARIABILITY，ANDBYREVERSION——CONCLUSION。

THEVARIATIONOFANIMALSANDPLANTSUNDERDOMESTICATION。

INTRODUCTION。

Theobjectofthisworkisnottodescribeallthemanyracesofanimalswhichhavebeendomesticatedbyman，andoftheplantswhichhavebeencultivatedbyhim;evenifIpossessedtherequisiteknowledge，sogiganticanundertakingwouldbeheresuperfluous。ItismyintentiontogiveundertheheadofeachspeciesonlysuchfactsasIhavebeenabletocollectorobserve，showingtheamountandnatureofthechangeswhichanimalsandplantshaveundergonewhilstunderman’sdominion，orwhichbearonthegeneralprinciplesofvariation。Inonecasealone，namelyinthatofthedomesticpigeon，Iwilldescribefullyallthechiefraces，theirhistory，theamountandnatureoftheirdifferences，andtheprobablestepsbywhichtheyhavebeenformed。Ihaveselectedthiscase，because，asweshallhereaftersee，thematerialsarebetterthaninanyother;andonecasefullydescribedwillinfactillustrateallothers。ButIshallalsodescribedomesticatedrabbits，fowls，andducks，withconsiderablefulness。

Thesubjectsdiscussedinthisvolumearesoconnectedthatitisnotalittledifficulttodecidehowtheycanbebestarranged。Ihavedeterminedinthefirstparttogive，undertheheadsofthevariousanimalsandplants，alargebodyoffacts，someofwhichmayatfirstappearbutlittlerelatedtooursubject，andtodevotethelatterparttogeneraldiscussions。WheneverIhavefounditnecessarytogivenumerousdetails，insupportofanypropositionorconclusion，smalltypehasbeenused。

（Hereshownwith[]。）Thereaderwill，Ithink，findthisplanaconvenience，for，ifhedoesnotdoubttheconclusionorcareaboutthedetails，hecaneasilypassthemover;yetImaybepermittedtosaythatsomeofthediscussionsthusprinteddeserveattention，atleastfromtheprofessednaturalist。

ItmaybeusefultothosewhohavereadnothingaboutNaturalSelection，ifIheregiveabriefsketchofthewholesubjectandofitsbearingontheoriginofspecies。（Introduction/1。Toanyonewhohasattentivelyreadmy’OriginofSpecies’thisIntroductionwillbesuperfluous。AsIstatedinthatworkthatIshouldsoonpublishthefactsonwhichtheconclusionsgiveninitwerefounded，Iherebegpermissiontoremarkthatthegreatdelayinpublishingthisfirstworkhasbeencausedbycontinuedill—

health。）Thisisthemoredesirable，asitisimpossibleinthepresentworktoavoidmanyallusionstoquestionswhichwillbefullydiscussedinfuturevolumes。

Fromaremoteperiod，inallpartsoftheworld，manhassubjectedmanyanimalsandplantstodomesticationorculture。Manhasnopowerofalteringtheabsoluteconditionsoflife;hecannotchangetheclimateofanycountry;headdsnonewelementtothesoil;buthecanremoveananimalorplantfromoneclimateorsoiltoanother，andgiveitfoodonwhichitdidnotsubsistinitsnaturalstate。Itisanerrortospeakofman"tamperingwithnature"andcausingvariability。Ifamandropsapieceofironintosulphuricacid，itcannotbesaidstrictlythathemakesthesulphateofiron，heonlyallowstheirelectiveaffinitiestocomeintoplay。Iforganicbeingshadnotpossessedaninherenttendencytovary，mancouldhavedonenothing。（Introduction/2。M。Pouchethasrecently（’PluralityofRaces’EnglishTranslation1864page83etc。）insistedthatvariationunderdomesticationthrowsnolightonthenaturalmodificationofspecies。Icannotperceivetheforceofhisarguments，or，tospeakmoreaccurately，ofhisassertionstothiseffect。）Heunintentionallyexposeshisanimalsandplantstovariousconditionsoflife，andvariabilitysupervenes，whichhecannotevenpreventorcheck。Considerthesimplecaseofaplantwhichhasbeencultivatedduringalongtimeinitsnativecountry，andwhichconsequentlyhasnotbeensubjectedtoanychangeofclimate。Ithasbeenprotectedtoacertainextentfromthecompetingrootsofplantsofotherkinds;ithasgenerallybeengrowninmanuredsoil;butprobablynotricherthanthatofmanyanalluvialflat;andlastly，ithasbeenexposedtochangesinitsconditions，beinggrownsometimesinonedistrictandsometimesinanother，indifferentsoils。Undersuchcircumstances，scarcelyaplantcanbenamed，thoughcultivatedintherudestmanner，whichhasnotgivenbirthtoseveralvarieties。Itcanhardlybemaintainedthatduringthemanychangeswhichthisearthhasundergone，andduringthenaturalmigrationsofplantsfromonelandorislandtoanother，tenantedbydifferentspecies，thatsuchplantswillnotoftenhavebeensubjectedtochangesintheirconditionsanalogoustothosewhichalmostinevitablycausecultivatedplantstovary。Nodoubtmanselectsvaryingindividuals，sowstheirseeds，andagainselectstheirvaryingoffspring。Buttheinitialvariationonwhichmanworks，andwithoutwhichhecandonothing，iscausedbyslightchangesintheconditionsoflife，whichmustoftenhaveoccurredundernature。Man，therefore，maybesaidtohavebeentryinganexperimentonagiganticscale;anditisanexperimentwhichnatureduringthelonglapseoftimehasincessantlytried。Henceitfollowsthattheprinciplesofdomesticationareimportantforus。Themainresultisthatorganicbeingsthustreatedhavevariedlargely，andthevariationshavebeeninherited。

Thishasapparentlybeenonechiefcauseofthebelieflongheldbysomefewnaturaliststhatspeciesinastateofnatureundergochange。

Ishallinthisvolumetreat，asfullyasmymaterialspermit，thewholesubjectofvariationunderdomestication。Wemaythushopetoobtainsomelight，littlethoughitbe，onthecausesofvariability，——onthelawswhichgovernit，suchasthedirectactionofclimateandfood，theeffectsofuseanddisuse，andofcorrelationofgrowth，——andontheamountofchangetowhichdomesticatedorganismsareliable。Weshalllearnsomethingofthelawsofinheritance，oftheeffectsofcrossingdifferentbreeds，andonthatsterilitywhichoftensuperveneswhenorganicbeingsareremovedfromtheirnaturalconditionsoflife，andlikewisewhentheyaretoocloselyinterbred。DuringthisinvestigationweshallseethattheprincipleofSelectionishighlyimportant。Althoughmandoesnotcausevariabilityandcannotevenpreventit，hecanselect，preserve，andaccumulatethevariationsgiventohimbythehandofnaturealmostinanywaywhichhechooses;andthushecancertainlyproduceagreatresult。

Selectionmaybefollowedeithermethodicallyandintentionally，orunconsciouslyandunintentionally。Manmayselectandpreserveeachsuccessivevariation，withthedistinctintentionofimprovingandalteringabreed，inaccordancewithapreconceivedidea;andbythusaddingupvariations，oftensoslightastobeimperceptiblebyanuneducatedeye，hehaseffectedwonderfulchangesandimprovements。Itcan，also，beclearlyshownthatman，withoutanyintentionorthoughtofimprovingthebreed，bypreservingineachsuccessivegenerationtheindividualswhichheprizesmost，andbydestroyingtheworthlessindividuals，slowly，thoughsurely，inducesgreatchanges。Asthewillofmanthuscomesintoplay，wecanunderstandhowitisthatdomesticatedbreedsshowadaptationtohiswantsandpleasures。Wecanfurtherunderstandhowitisthatdomesticracesofanimalsandcultivatedracesofplantsoftenexhibitanabnormalcharacter，ascomparedwithnaturalspecies;fortheyhavebeenmodifiednotfortheirownbenefit，butforthatofman。

InanotherworkIshalldiscuss，iftimeandhealthpermit，thevariabilityoforganicbeingsinastateofnature;namely，theindividualdifferencespresentedbyanimalsandplants，andthoseslightlygreaterandgenerallyinheriteddifferenceswhicharerankedbynaturalistsasvarietiesorgeographicalraces。Weshallseehowdifficult，orratherhowimpossibleitoftenis，todistinguishbetweenracesandsub—species，asthelesswell—

markedformshavesometimesbeendenominated;andagainbetweensub—speciesandtruespecies。Ishallfurtherattempttoshowthatitisthecommonandwidelyranging，or，astheymaybecalled，thedominantspecies，whichmostfrequentlyvary;andthatitisthelargeandflourishinggenerawhichincludethegreatestnumberofvaryingspecies。Varieties，asweshallsee，mayjustlybecalledincipientspecies。

Butitmaybeurged，grantingthatorganicbeingsinastateofnaturepresentsomevarieties，——thattheirorganisationisinsomeslightdegreeplastic;grantingthatmanyanimalsandplantshavevariedgreatlyunderdomestication，andthatmanbyhispowerofselectionhasgoneonaccumulatingsuchvariationsuntilhehasmadestronglymarkedandfirmlyinheritedraces;grantingallthis，how，itmaybeasked，havespeciesariseninastateofnature？Thedifferencesbetweennaturalvarietiesareslight;whereasthedifferencesareconsiderablebetweenthespeciesofthesamegenus，andgreatbetweenthespeciesofdistinctgenera。Howdotheselesserdifferencesbecomeaugmentedintothegreaterdifference？Howdovarieties，orasIhavecalledthemincipientspecies，becomeconvertedintotrueandwell—definedspecies？Howhaseachnewspeciesbeenadaptedtothesurroundingphysicalconditions，andtotheotherformsoflifeonwhichitinanywaydepends？Weseeoneverysideofusinnumerableadaptationsandcontrivances，whichhavejustlyexcitedthehighestadmirationofeveryobserver。Thereis，forinstance，afly（Cecidomyia（Introduction/3。LeonDufourin’AnnalesdesScience。Nat。’（3rdseries，Zoolog。）tome5page6。））whichdepositsitseggswithinthestamensofaScrophularia，andsecretesapoisonwhichproducesagall，onwhichthelarvafeeds;butthereisanotherinsect（Misocampus）whichdepositsitseggswithinthebodyofthelarvawithinthegall，andisthusnourishedbyitslivingprey;sothathereahymenopterousinsectdependsonadipterousinsect，andthisdependsonitspowerofproducingamonstrousgrowthinaparticularorganofaparticularplant。Soitis，inamoreorlessplainlymarkedmanner，inthousandsandtensofthousandsofcases，withthelowestaswellaswiththehighestproductionsofnature。

Thisproblemoftheconversionofvarietiesintospecies，——thatis，theaugmentationoftheslightdifferencescharacteristicofvarietiesintothegreaterdifferencescharacteristicofspeciesandgenera，includingtheadmirableadaptationsofeachbeingtoitscomplexorganicandinorganicconditionsoflife，——hasbeenbrieflytreatedinmy’OriginofSpecies。’Itwasthereshownthatallorganicbeings，withoutexception，tendtoincreaseatsohigharatio，thatnodistrict，nostation，noteventhewholesurfaceofthelandorthewholeocean，wouldholdtheprogenyofasinglepairafteracertainnumberofgenerations。Theinevitableresultisanever—recurrentStruggleforExistence。Ithastrulybeensaidthatallnatureisatwar;thestrongestultimatelyprevail，theweakestfail;andwewellknowthatmyriadsofformshavedisappearedfromthefaceoftheearth。Ifthenorganicbeingsinastateofnaturevaryeveninaslightdegree，owingtochangesinthesurroundingconditions，ofwhichwehaveabundantgeologicalevidence，orfromanyothercause;if，inthelongcourseofages，inheritablevariationseverariseinanywayadvantageoustoanybeingunderitsexcessivelycomplexandchangingrelationsoflife;

anditwouldbeastrangefactifbeneficialvariationsdidneverarise，seeinghowmanyhavearisenwhichmanhastakenadvantageofforhisownprofitorpleasure;ifthenthesecontingencieseveroccur，andIdonotseehowtheprobabilityoftheiroccurrencecanbedoubted，thenthesevereandoften—recurrentstruggleforexistencewilldeterminethatthosevariations，howeverslight，whicharefavourableshallbepreservedorselected，andthosewhichareunfavourableshallbedestroyed。

Thispreservation，duringthebattleforlife，ofvarietieswhichpossessanyadvantageinstructure，constitution，orinstinct，IhavecalledNaturalSelection;andMr。HerbertSpencerhaswellexpressedthesameideabytheSurvivaloftheFittest。Theterm"naturalselection"isinsomerespectsabadone，asitseemstoimplyconsciouschoice;butthiswillbedisregardedafteralittlefamiliarity。Nooneobjectstochemistsspeakingof"electiveaffinity;"andcertainlyanacidhasnomorechoiceincombiningwithabase，thantheconditionsoflifehaveindeterminingwhetherornotanewformbeselectedorpreserved。Thetermissofaragoodoneasitbringsintoconnectiontheproductionofdomesticracesbyman’spowerofselection，andthenaturalpreservationofvarietiesandspeciesinastateofnature。ForbrevitysakeIsometimesspeakofnaturalselectionasanintelligentpower;——inthesamewayasastronomersspeakoftheattractionofgravityasrulingthemovementsoftheplanets，orasagriculturistsspeakofmanmakingdomesticracesbyhispowerofselection。Intheonecase，asintheother，selectiondoesnothingwithoutvariability，andthisdependsinsomemannerontheactionofthesurroundingcircumstancesontheorganism。Ihave，also，oftenpersonifiedthewordNature;forIhavefounditdifficulttoavoidthisambiguity;butImeanbynatureonlytheaggregateactionandproductofmanynaturallaws，——andbylawsonlytheascertainedsequenceofevents。

Ithasbeenshownfrommanyfactsthatthelargestamountoflifecanbesupportedoneacharea，bygreatdiversificationordivergenceinthestructureandconstitutionofitsinhabitants。Wehave，also，seenthatthecontinuedproductionofnewformsthroughnaturalselection，whichimpliesthateachnewvarietyhassomeadvantageoverothers，inevitablyleadstotheexterminationoftheolderandlessimprovedforms。Theselatterarealmostnecessarilyintermediateinstructure，aswellasindescent，betweenthelast—producedformsandtheiroriginalparent—species。Now，ifwesupposeaspeciestoproducetwoormorevarieties，andtheseinthecourseoftimetoproduceothervarieties，theprincipalofgoodbeingderivedfromdiversificationofstructurewillgenerallyleadtothepreservationofthemostdivergentvarieties;thusthelesserdifferencescharacteristicofvarietiescometobeaugmentedintothegreaterdifferencescharacteristicofspecies，and，bytheexterminationoftheolderintermediateforms，newspeciesendbybeingdistinctlydefinedobjects。Thus，also，weshallseehowitisthatorganicbeingscanbeclassedbywhatiscalledanaturalmethodindistinctgroups——speciesundergenera，andgeneraunderfamilies。

Asalltheinhabitantsofeachcountrymaybesaid，owingtotheirhighrateofreproduction，tobestrivingtoincreaseinnumbers;aseachformcomesintocompetitionwithmanyotherformsinthestruggleforlife，——fordestroyanyoneanditsplacewillbeseizedbyothers;aseverypartoftheorganisationoccasionallyvariesinsomeslightdegree，andasnaturalselectionactsexclusivelybythepreservationofvariationswhichareadvantageousundertheexcessivelycomplexconditionstowhicheachbeingisexposed，nolimitexiststothenumber，singularity，andperfectionofthecontrivancesandco—adaptationswhichmaythusbeproduced。Ananimaloraplantmaythusslowlybecomerelatedinitsstructureandhabitsinthemostintricatemannertomanyotheranimalsandplants，andtothephysicalconditionsofitshome。Variationsintheorganisationwillinsomecasesbeaidedbyhabit，orbytheuseanddisuseofparts，andtheywillbegovernedbythedirectactionofthesurroundingphysicalconditionsandbycorrelationofgrowth。

Ontheprinciplesherebrieflysketchedout，thereisnoinnateornecessarytendencyineachbeingtoitsownadvancementinthescaleoforganisation。Wearealmostcompelledtolookatthespecialisationordifferentiationofpartsororgansfordifferentfunctionsasthebestorevensolestandardofadvancement;forbysuchdivisionoflaboureachfunctionofbodyandmindisbetterperformed。Andasnaturalselectionactsexclusivelythroughthepreservationofprofitablemodificationsofstructure，andastheconditionsoflifeineachareagenerallybecomemoreandmorecomplexfromtheincreasingnumberofdifferentformswhichinhabititandfrommostoftheseformsacquiringamoreandmoreperfectstructure，wemayconfidentlybelieve，that，onthewhole，organisationadvances。Neverthelessaverysimpleformfittedforverysimpleconditionsoflifemightremainforindefiniteagesunalteredorunimproved;forwhatwoulditprofitaninfusorialanimalcule，forinstance，oranintestinalworm，tobecomehighlyorganised？Membersofahighgroupmightevenbecome，andthisapparentlyhasoftenoccurred，fittedforsimplerconditionsoflife;andinthiscasenaturalselectionwouldtendtosimplifyordegradetheorganisation，forcomplicatedmechanismforsimpleactionswouldbeuselessorevendisadvantageous。

TheargumentsopposedtothetheoryofNaturalSelection，havebeendiscussedinmy’OriginofSpecies，’asfarasthesizeofthatworkpermitted，underthefollowingheads:thedifficultyinunderstandinghowverysimpleorganshavebeenconvertedbysmallandgraduatedstepsintohighlyperfectandcomplexorgans;themarvellousfactsofInstinct;thewholequestionofHybridity;and，lastly，theabsenceinourknowngeologicalformationsofinnumerablelinksconnectingallalliedspecies。

Althoughsomeofthesedifficultiesareofgreatweight，weshallseethatmanyofthemareexplicableonthetheoryofnaturalselection，andareotherwiseinexplicable。

Inscientificinvestigationsitispermittedtoinventanyhypothesis，andifitexplainsvariouslargeandindependentclassesoffactsitrisestotherankofawell—groundedtheory。Theundulationsoftheetherandevenitsexistencearehypothetical，yeteveryonenowadmitstheundulatorytheoryoflight。Theprincipleofnaturalselectionmaybelookedatasamerehypothesis，butrenderedinsomedegreeprobablebywhatwepositivelyknowofthevariabilityoforganicbeingsinastateofnature，——bywhatwepositivelyknowofthestruggleforexistence，andtheconsequentalmostinevitablepreservationoffavourablevariations，——andfromtheanalogicalformationofdomesticraces。Nowthishypothesismaybetested，——andthisseemstometheonlyfairandlegitimatemannerofconsideringthewholequestion，——bytryingwhetheritexplainsseverallargeandindependentclassesoffacts;suchasthegeologicalsuccessionoforganicbeings，theirdistributioninpastandpresenttimes，andtheirmutualaffinitiesandhomologies。Iftheprincipleofnaturalselectiondoesexplaintheseandotherlargebodiesoffacts，itoughttobereceived。Ontheordinaryviewofeachspecieshavingbeenindependentlycreated，wegainnoscientificexplanationofanyoneofthesefacts。WecanonlysaythatithassopleasedtheCreatortocommandthatthepastandpresentinhabitantsoftheworldshouldappearinacertainorderandincertainareas;thatHehasimpressedonthemthemostextraordinaryresemblances，andhasclassedthemingroupssubordinatetogroups。Butbysuchstatementswegainnonewknowledge;wedonotconnecttogetherfactsandlaws;weexplainnothing。

Itwastheconsiderationofsuchlargegroupsoffactsasthesewhichfirstledmetotakeupthepresentsubject。WhenIvisitedduringthevoyageofH。M。S。"Beagle，"theGalapagosArchipelago，situatedinthePacificOceanabout500milesfromSouthAmerica，Ifoundmyselfsurroundedbypeculiarspeciesofbirds，reptiles，andplants，existingnowhereelseintheworld。

YettheynearlyallboreanAmericanstamp。Inthesongofthemocking—

thrush，intheharshcryofthecarrion—hawk，inthegreatcandlestick—likeopuntias，IclearlyperceivedtheneighbourhoodofAmerica，thoughtheislandswereseparatedbysomanymilesofoceanfromthemainland，anddifferedmuchintheirgeologicalconstitutionandclimate。Stillmoresurprisingwasthefactthatmostoftheinhabitantsofeachseparateislandinthissmallarchipelagowerespecificallydifferent，thoughmostcloselyrelatedtoeachother。Thearchipelago，withitsinnumerablecratersandbarestreamsoflava，appearedtobeofrecentorigin;andthusIfanciedmyselfbroughtneartotheveryactofcreation。Ioftenaskedmyselfhowthesemanypeculiaranimalsandplantshadbeenproduced:thesimplestanswerseemedtobethattheinhabitantsoftheseveralislandshaddescendedfromeachother，undergoingmodificationinthecourseoftheirdescent;andthatalltheinhabitantsofthearchipelagoweredescendedfromthoseofthenearestland，namelyAmerica，whencecolonistswouldnaturallyhavebeenderived。Butitlongremainedtomeaninexplicableproblemhowthenecessarydegreeofmodificationcouldhavebeeneffected，anditwouldhavethusremainedforever，hadInotstudieddomesticproductions，andthusacquiredajustideaofthepowerofSelection。AssoonasIhadfullyrealisedthisidea，Isaw，onreadingMalthusonPopulation，thatNaturalSelectionwastheinevitableresultoftherapidincreaseofallorganicbeings;forIwaspreparedtoappreciatethestruggleforexistencebyhavinglongstudiedthehabitsofanimals。

BeforevisitingtheGalapagosIhadcollectedmanyanimalswhilsttravellingfromnorthtosouthonbothsidesofAmerica，andeverywhere，underconditionsoflifeasdifferentasitispossibletoconceive，Americanformsweremetwith——speciesreplacingspeciesofthesamepeculiargenera。ThusitwaswhentheCordilleraswereascended，orthethicktropicalforestspenetrated，orthefreshwatersofAmericasearched。

SubsequentlyIvisitedothercountries，whichinalltheirconditionsoflifewereincomparablymorelikepartsofSouthAmerica，thanthedifferentpartsofthatcontinentaretoeachother;yetinthesecountries，asinAustraliaorSouthernAfrica，thetravellercannotfailtobestruckwiththeentiredifferenceoftheirproductions。AgainthereflectionwasforcedonmethatcommunityofdescentfromtheearlyinhabitantsofSouthAmericawouldaloneexplainthewideprevalenceofAmericantypesthroughoutthatimmensearea。

Toexhumewithone’sownhandsthebonesofextinctandgiganticquadrupedsbringsthewholequestionofthesuccessionofspeciesvividlybeforeone’smind;andIfoundinSouthAmericagreatpiecesoftesselatedarmourexactlylike，butonamagnificentscale，thatcoveringthepigmyarmadillo;Ihadfoundgreatteethlikethoseofthelivingsloth，andboneslikethoseofthecavy。AnanalogoussuccessionofalliedformshadbeenpreviouslyobservedinAustralia。Herethenweseetheprevalence，asifbydescent，intimeasinspace，ofthesametypesinthesameareas;

andinneitherthecasedoesthesimilarityoftheconditionsbyanymeansseemsufficienttoaccountforthesimilarityoftheformsoflife。Itisnotoriousthatthefossilremainsofcloselyconsecutiveformationsarecloselyalliedinstructure，andwecanatonceunderstandthefactiftheyarecloselyalliedbydescent。Thesuccessionofthemanydistinctspeciesofthesamegenusthroughoutthelongseriesofgeologicalformationsseemstohavebeenunbrokenorcontinuous。Newspeciescomeingraduallyonebyone。Ancientandextinctformsoflifeareoftenintermediateincharacter，likethewordsofadeadlanguagewithrespecttoitsseveraloffshootsorlivingtongues。Allthesefactsseemedtometopointtodescentwithmodificationasthemeansofproductionofnewspecies。

Theinnumerablepastandpresentinhabitantsoftheworldareconnectedtogetherbythemostsingularandcomplexaffinities，andcanbeclassedingroupsundergroups，inthesamemannerasvarietiescanbeclassedunderspeciesandsub—varietiesundervarieties，butwithmuchhighergradesofdifference。Thesecomplexaffinitiesandtherulesforclassification，receivearationalexplanationonthetheoryofdescent，combinedwiththeprincipleofnaturalselection，whichentailsdivergenceofcharacterandtheextinctionofintermediateforms。Howinexplicableisthesimilarpatternofthehandofaman，thefootofadog，thewingofabat，theflipperofaseal，onthedoctrineofindependentactsofcreation！howsimplyexplainedontheprincipleofthenaturalselectionofsuccessiveslightvariationsinthedivergingdescendantsfromasingleprogenitor！Soitiswithcertainpartsororgansinthesameindividualanimalorplant，forinstance，thejawsandlegsofacrab，orthepetals，stamens，andpistilsofaflower。Duringthemanychangestowhichinthecourseoftimeorganicbeingshavebeensubjected，certainorgansorpartshaveoccasionallybecomeatfirstoflittleuseandultimatelysuperfluous;andtheretentionofsuchpartsinarudimentaryanduselessconditionisintelligibleonthetheoryofdescent。Itcanbeshownthatmodificationsofstructurearegenerallyinheritedbytheoffspringatthesameageatwhicheachsuccessivevariationappearedintheparents;itcanfurtherbeshownthatvariationsdonotcommonlysuperveneataveryearlyperiodofembryonicgrowth，andonthesetwoprincipleswecanunderstandthatmostwonderfulfactinthewholecircuitofnaturalhistory，namely，theclosesimilarityoftheembryoswithinthesamegreatclass——forinstance，thoseofmammals，birds，reptiles，andfish。

Itistheconsiderationandexplanationofsuchfactsasthesewhichhasconvincedmethatthetheoryofdescentwithmodificationbymeansofnaturalselectionisinthemaintrue。ThesefactshaveasyetreceivednoexplanationonthetheoryofindependentCreation;theycannotbegroupedtogetherunderonepointofview，buteachhastobeconsideredasanultimatefact。Asthefirstoriginoflifeonthisearth，aswellasthecontinuedlifeofeachindividual，isatpresentquitebeyondthescopeofscience，Idonotwishtolaymuchstressonthegreatersimplicityoftheviewofafewformsorofonlyoneformhavingbeenoriginallycreated，insteadofinnumerablemiraculouscreationshavingbeennecessaryatinnumerableperiods;thoughthismoresimpleviewaccordswellwithMaupertuis’sphilosophicalaxiomof"leastaction。"

Inconsideringhowfarthetheoryofnaturalselectionmaybeextended，——thatis，indeterminingfromhowmanyprogenitorstheinhabitantsoftheworldhavedescended，——wemayconcludethatatleastallthemembersofthesameclasshavedescendedfromasingleancestor。Anumberoforganicbeingsareincludedinthesameclass，becausetheypresent，independentlyoftheirhabitsoflife，thesamefundamentaltypeofstructure，andbecausetheygraduateintoeachother。Moreover，membersofthesameclasscaninmostcasesbeshowntobecloselyalikeatanearlyembryonicage。

Thesefactscanbeexplainedonthebeliefoftheirdescentfromacommonform;thereforeitmaybesafelyadmittedthatallthemembersofthesameclassaredescendedfromoneprogenitor。Butasthemembersofquitedistinctclasseshavesomethingincommoninstructureandmuchincommoninconstitution，analogywouldleadusonestepfurther，andtoinferasprobablethatalllivingcreaturesaredescendedfromasingleprototype。

Ihopethatthereaderwillpausebeforecomingtoanyfinalandhostileconclusiononthetheoryofnaturalselection。Thereadermayconsultmy’OriginofSpecies’forageneralsketchofthewholesubject;butinthatworkhehastotakemanystatementsontrust。Inconsideringthetheoryofnaturalselection，hewillassuredlymeetwithweightydifficulties，butthesedifficultiesrelatechieflytosubjects——suchasthedegreeofperfectionofthegeologicalrecord，themeansofdistribution，thepossibilityoftransitionsinorgans，etc。——onwhichweareconfessedlyignorant;nordoweknowhowignorantweare。Ifwearemuchmoreignorantthanisgenerallysupposed，mostofthesedifficultieswhollydisappear。

Letthereaderreflectonthedifficultyoflookingatwholeclassesoffactsfromanewpointofview。Lethimobservehowslowly，butsurely，thenobleviewsofLyellonthegradualchangesnowinprogressontheearth’ssurfacehavebeenacceptedassufficienttoaccountforallthatweseeinitspasthistory。Thepresentactionofnaturalselectionmayseemmoreorlessprobable;butIbelieveinthetruthofthetheory，becauseitcollects，underonepointofview，andgivesarationalexplanationof，manyapparentlyindependentclassesoffacts。（Introduction/4。IntreatingtheseveralsubjectsincludedinthepresentandmyotherworksIhavecontinuallybeenledtoaskforinformationfrommanyzoologists，botanists，geologists，breedersofanimals，andhorticulturists，andIhaveinvariablyreceivedfromthemthemostgenerousassistance。WithoutsuchaidIcouldhaveeffectedlittle。Ihaverepeatedlyappliedforinformationandspecimenstoforeigners，andtoBritishmerchantsandofficersoftheGovernmentresidingindistantlands，and，withtherarestexceptions，I

havereceivedprompt，open—handed，andvaluableassistance。Icannotexpresstoostronglymyobligationstothemanypersonswhohaveassistedme，andwho，Iamconvinced，wouldbeequallywillingtoassistothersinanyscientificinvestigation。）

CHAPTER1。I。

DOMESTICDOGSANDCATS。

ANCIENTVARIETIESOFTHEDOG。

RESEMBLANCEOFDOMESTICDOGSINVARIOUSCOUNTRIESTONATIVECANINESPECIES。

ANIMALSNOTACQUAINTEDWITHMANATFIRSTFEARLESS。

DOGSRESEMBLINGWOLVESANDJACKALS。

HABITOFBARKINGACQUIREDANDLOST。

FERALDOGS。

TAN—COLOUREDEYE—SPOTS。

PERIODOFGESTATION。

OFFENSIVEODOUR。

FERTILITYOFTHERACESWHENCROSSED。

DIFFERENCESINTHESEVERALRACESINPARTDUETODESCENTFROMDISTINCT

SPECIES。

DIFFERENCESINTHESKULLANDTEETH。

DIFFERENCESINTHEBODY，INCONSTITUTION。

FEWIMPORTANTDIFFERENCESHAVEBEENFIXEDBYSELECTION。

DIRECTACTIONOFCLIMATE。

WATER—DOGSWITHPALMATEDFEET。

HISTORYOFTHECHANGESWHICHCERTAINENGLISHRACESOFTHEDOGHAVE

GRADUALLYUNDERGONETHROUGHSELECTION。

EXTINCTIONOFTHELESSIMPROVEDSUB—BREEDS。

CATS，CROSSEDWITHSEVERALSPECIES。

DIFFERENTBREEDSFOUNDONLYINSEPARATEDCOUNTRIES。

DIRECTEFFECTSOFTHECONDITIONSOFLIFE。

FERALCATS。

INDIVIDUALVARIABILITY。

Thefirstandchiefpointofinterestinthischapteris，whetherthenumerousdomesticatedvarietiesofthedoghavedescendedfromasinglewildspecies，orfromseveral。Someauthorsbelievethatallhavedescendedfromthewolf，orfromthejackal，orfromanunknownandextinctspecies。

Othersagainbelieve，andthisoflatehasbeenthefavouritetenet，thattheyhavedescendedfromseveralspecies，extinctandrecent，moreorlesscommingledtogether。Weshallprobablyneverbeabletoascertaintheiroriginwithcertainty。Palaeontology（1/1。Owen’BritishFossilMammals’

pages123to133。Pictet’TraitedePal。’1853tome1page202。DeBlainvilleinhis’Osteographie，Canidae’page142haslargelydiscussedthewholesubject，andconcludesthattheextinctparentofalldomesticateddogscamenearesttothewolfinorganisation，andtothejackalinhabits。SeealsoBoydDawkins，’CaveHunting’1874page131etc。

andhisotherpublications。Jeitteleshasdiscussedingreatdetailthecharacterofthebreedsofpre—historicdogs:’DievorgeschichtlichenAlterthumerderStadtOlmutz’II。Theil，1872page44toend。）doesnotthrowmuchlightonthequestion，owing，ontheonehand，totheclosesimilarityoftheskullsofextinctaswellaslivingwolvesandjackals，andowing，ontheotherhand，tothegreatdissimilarityoftheskullsoftheseveralbreedsofthedomesticdogs。Itseems，however，thatremainshavebeenfoundinthelatertertiarydepositsmorelikethoseofalargedogthanofawolf，whichfavoursthebeliefofDeBlainvillethatourdogsarethedescendantsofasingleextinctspecies。Ontheotherhand，someauthorsgosofarastoassertthateverychiefdomesticbreedmusthavehaditswildprototype。Thislatterviewisextremelyimprobable:itallowsnothingforvariation;itpassesoverthealmostmonstrouscharacterofsomeofthebreeds;anditalmostnecessarilyassumesthatalargenumberofspecieshavebecomeextinctsincemandomesticatedthedog;whereasweplainlyseethatwildmembersofthedog—familyareextirpatedbyhumanagencywithmuchdifficulty;evensorecentlyas1710thewolfexistedinsosmallanislandasIreland。

Thereasonswhichhaveledvariousauthorstoinferthatourdogshavedescendedfrommorethanonewildspeciesareasfollows。（1/2。Pallas，I

believe，originatedthisdoctrinein’Act。Acad。St。Petersburgh’1780Part2。Ehrenberghasadvocatedit，asmaybeseeninDeBlainville’s’Osteographie’page79。IthasbeencarriedtoanextremeextentbyCol。

HamiltonSmithinthe’NaturalistLibrary’volumes9and10。Mr。W。C。

Martinadoptsitinhisexcellent’HistoryoftheDog’1845;asdoesDr。

Morton，aswellasNottandGliddon，intheUnitedStates。Prof。Low，inhis’DomesticatedAnimals’1845page666，comestothissameconclusion。NoonehasarguedonthissidewithmoreclearnessandforcethanthelateJamesWilson，ofEdinburgh，invariouspapersreadbeforetheHighlandAgriculturalandWernerianSocieties。IsidoreGeoffroySaint—Hilaire（’Hist。Nat。Gen。’1860tome3page107），thoughhebelievesthatmostdogshavedescendedfromthejackal，yetinclinestothebeliefthatsomearedescendedfromthewolf。Prof。Gervais（’Hist。Nat。Mamm。’1855tome2page69，referringtotheviewthatallthedomesticracesarethemodifieddescendantsofasinglespecies，afteralongdiscussion，says，"Cetteopinionest，suivantnousdumoins，lamoinsprobable。"）Firstly，thegreatdifferencebetweentheseveralbreeds;butthiswillappearofcomparativelylittleweight，afterweshallhaveseenhowgreatarethedifferencesbetweentheseveralracesofvariousdomesticatedanimalswhichcertainlyhavedescendedfromasingleparent—form。Secondly，themoreimportantfact，that，atthemostancientlyknownhistoricalperiods，severalbreedsofthedogexisted，veryunlikeeachother，andcloselyresemblingoridenticalwithbreedsstillalive。

Wewillbrieflyrunbackthroughthehistoricalrecords。ThematerialsareremarkablydeficientbetweenthefourteenthcenturyandtheRomanclassicalperiod。（1/3。Berjeau’TheVarietiesoftheDog;inoldSculpturesandPictures’1863。’DerHund’vonDr。F。L。Walther，Giessen1817s。48:thisauthorseemscarefullytohavestudiedallclassicalworksonthesubject。

SeealsoVolz’BeitragezurKulturgeschichte’Leipzig1852s。115，’YouattontheDog’1845page6。AveryfullhistoryisgivenbyDeBlainvilleinhis’Osteographie，Canidae。’）Atthislatterperiodvariousbreeds，namelyhounds，house—dogs，lapdogs，etc，existed;but，asDr。Waltherhasremarked，itisimpossibletorecognisethegreaternumberwithanycertainty。Youatt，however，givesadrawingofabeautifulsculptureoftwogreyhoundpuppiesfromtheVillaofAntoninus。OnanAssyrianmonument，about640B。C。，anenormousmastiff（1/4。IhaveseendrawingsofthisdogfromthetombofthesonofEsarHaddon，andclaymodelsintheBritishMuseum。NottandGliddon，intheir’TypesofMankind’1854page393，giveacopyofthesedrawings。ThisdoghasbeencalledaThibetanmastiff，butMr。H。A。Oldfield，whoisfamiliarwiththeso—calledThibetmastiff，andhasexaminedthedrawingsintheBritishMuseum，informsmethatheconsidersthemdifferent。）isfigured;andaccordingtoSirH。Rawlinson（asIwasinformedattheBritishMuseum），similardogsarestillimportedintothissamecountry。IhavelookedthroughthemagnificentworksofLepsiusandRosellini，andontheEgyptianmonumentsfromthefourthtothetwelfthdynasties（i。e。fromabout3400B。C。to2100B。C。）severalvarietiesofthedogarerepresented;mostofthemarealliedtogreyhounds;atthelateroftheseperiodsadogresemblingahoundisfigured，withdroopingears，butwithalongerbackandmorepointedheadthaninourhounds。Thereis，also，aturnspit，withshortandcrookedlegs，closelyresemblingtheexistingvariety;butthiskindofmonstrosityissocommonwithvariousanimals，aswiththeanconsheep，andeven，accordingtoRengger，withjaguarsinParaguay，thatitwouldberashtolookatthemonumentalanimalastheparentofallourturnspits:ColonelSykes（1/5。’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’July12，1831。）alsohasdescribedanIndianpariahdogaspresentingthesamemonstrouscharacter。ThemostancientdogrepresentedontheEgyptianmonumentsisoneofthemostsingular;itresemblesagreyhound，buthaslongpointedearsandashortcurledtail:acloselyalliedvarietystillexistsinNorthernAfrica;forMr。E。VernonHarcourt（1/6。’SportinginAlgeria’page51。）statesthattheArabboar—houndis"aneccentrichieroglyphicanimal，suchasCheopsoncehuntedwith，somewhatresemblingtheroughScotchdeer—hound;theirtailsarecurledtightroundontheirbacks，andtheirearsstickoutatrightangles。"Withthismostancientvarietyapariah—likedogcoexisted。

Wethusseethat，ataperiodbetweenfourandfivethousandyearsago，variousbreeds，viz。pariahdogs，greyhounds，commonhounds，mastiffs，house—dogs，lapdogs，andturnspits，existed，moreorlesscloselyresemblingourpresentbreeds。Butthereisnotsufficientevidencethatanyoftheseancientdogsbelongedtothesameidenticalsub—varietieswithourpresentdogs。（1/7。BerjeaugivesfacsimilesoftheEgyptiandrawings。

Mr。C。L。Martininhis’HistoryoftheDog’1845copiesseveralfiguresfromtheEgyptianmonuments，andspeakswithmuchconfidencewithrespecttotheiridentitywithstilllivingdogs。Messrs。NottandGliddon（’TypesofMankind’1854page388）givestillmorenumerousfigures。Mr。Gliddonassertsthatacurl—tailedgreyhound，likethatrepresentedonthemostancientmonuments，iscommoninBorneo;buttheRajah，SirJ。Brooke，informsmethatnosuchdogexiststhere。）Aslongasmanwasbelievedtohaveexistedonthisearthonlyabout6000years，thisfactofthegreatdiversityofthebreedsatsoearlyaperiodwasanargumentofmuchweightthattheyhadproceededfromseveralwildsources，fortherewouldnothavebeensufficienttimefortheirdivergenceandmodification。Butnowthatweknow，fromthediscoveryofflinttoolsembeddedwiththeremainsofextinctanimalsindistrictswhichhavesinceundergonegreatgeographicalchanges，thatmanhasexistedforanincomparablylongerperiod，andbearinginmindthatthemostbarbarousnationspossessdomesticdogs，theargumentfrominsufficienttimefallsawaygreatlyinvalue。

LongbeforetheperiodofanyhistoricalrecordthedogwasdomesticatedinEurope。IntheDanishMiddensoftheNeolithicorNewerStoneperiod，bonesofacanineanimalareembedded，andSteenstrupingeniouslyarguesthatthesebelongedtoadomesticdog;foraverylargeproportionofthebonesofbirdspreservedintherefuseconsistsoflongbones，whichitwasfoundontrialdogscannotdevour。（1/8。These，andthefollowingfactsontheDanishremains，aretakenfromM。Morlot’smostinterestingmemoirin’Soc。