Volume1

byHippolyteA。TainePREFACE。

BOOKFIRST。TheStructureoftheAncientSociety。

CHAPTERI。TheOriginofPrivileges。

CHAPTERII。ThePrivilegedClasses。

CHAPTERIII。LocalServicesDuebythePrivilegedClasses。

CHAPTERIV。Publicservicesduebytheprivilegedclasses。

BOOKSECOND。HabitsandCharacters。

CHAPTERI。SocialHabits。

CHAPTERII。DrawingroomLife。

CHAPTERIII。DisadvantagesofthisDrawingroomLife。

BOOKTHIRD。TheSpiritandtheDoctrine。

CHAPTERI。ScientificAcquisition。

CHAPTERII。TheClassicSpirit，theSecondElement。

CHAPTERIII。Combinationofthetwoelements。

CHAPTERIV。OrganizingtheFutureSociety。

BOOKFOURTH。ThePropagationoftheDoctrine。

CHAPTERI。SuccessinFrance。

CHAPTERII。TheFrenchPublic。

CHAPTERIII。TheMiddleClass。

BOOKFIFTH。ThePeopleCHAPTERI。Hardships。

CHAPTERII。Taxationtheprincipalcauseofmisery。

CHAPTERIII。Intellectualstateofthepeople。

CHAPTERIV。TheArmedForces。

CHAPTERV。Summary。

Preface:

Inthisvolume，asinthoseprecedingitandinthosetocome，therewillbefoundonlythehistoryofPublicAuthorities。Otherswillwritethatofdiplomacy，ofwar，ofthefinances，oftheChurch；

mysubjectisalimitedone。Tomygreatregret，however，thisnewpartfillsanentirevolume；andthelastpart，ontherevolutionarygovernment，willbeaslong。

IhaveagaintoregretthedissatisfactionIforeseethisworkwillcausetomanyofmycountrymen。Myexcuseis，thatalmostallofthem，morefortunatethanmyself，havepoliticalprincipleswhichservetheminformingtheirjudgmentsofthepast。Ihadnone；ifindeed，Ihadanymotiveinundertakingthiswork，itwastoseekforpoliticalprinciples。ThusfarIhaveattainedtoscarcelymorethanone；andthisissosimplethatwillseempuerile，andthatIhardlydareexpressit。NeverthelessIhaveadheredtoit，andinwhatthereaderisabouttoperusemyjudgmentsareallderivedfromthat；itstruthisthemeasureoftheirs。Itconsistswhollyinthisobservation:thatHUMANSOCIETY，ESPECIALLYAMODERNSOCIETY，ISAVASTAND

COMPLICATEDTHING。

Hencethedifficultyinknowingandcomprehendingit。Forthesamereasonitisnoteasytohandlethesubjectwell。Itfollowsthatacultivatedmindismuchbetterabletodothisthananuncultivatedmind，andamanspeciallyqualifiedthanonewhoisnot。Fromthesetwolasttruthsflowmanyotherconsequences，which，ifthereaderdeignstoreflectonthem，hewillhavenotroubleindefining。

Paris1881。

THEANCIENTREGIME

PREFACEBYTHEAUTHOR:

ONPOLITICALIGNORANCEANDWISDOM。

In1849，beingtwenty—oneyearsofage，andanelector，Iwasverymuchpuzzled，forIhadtonominatefifteenortwentydeputies，and，moreover，accordingtoFrenchcustom，IhadnotonlytodeterminewhatcandidateIwouldvotefor，butwhattheoryIshouldadopt。Ihadtochoosebetweenaroyalistorarepublican，ademocratoraconservative，asocialistorabonapartist；asIwasneitheronenortheother，norevenanything，Ioftenenviedthosearoundmewhoweresofortunateastohavearrivedatdefiniteconclusions。Afterlisteningtovariousdoctrines，Iacknowledgedthatthereundoubtedlywassomethingwrongwithmyhead。Themotivesthatinfluencedothersdidnotinfluenceme；Icouldnotcomprehendhow，inpoliticalmatters，amancouldbegovernedbypreferences。Myassertivecountrymenplannedaconstitutionjustlikeahouse，accordingtothelatest，simplest，andmostattractiveplan；andtherewereseveralunderconsideration—themansionofamarquis，thehouseofacommoncitizen，thetenementofalaborer，thebarracksofasoldier，thekibbutzofasocialist，andeventhecampofsavages。Eachclaimedthathiswas"thetruehabitationforMan，theonlyoneinwhichasensiblepersoncouldlive。"Inmyopinion，theargumentwasweak；

personaltastecouldnotbevalidforeveryone。Itseemedtomethatahouseshouldnotbebuiltforthearchitectalone，orforitself，butfortheownerwhowastoliveinit。Referringtotheownerforhisadvice，thatissubmittingtotheFrenchpeopletheplansofitsfuturehabitation，wouldevidentlybeeitherforshoworjusttodeceivethem；sincethequestion，obviously，wasputinsuchamannerthatitprovidedtheanswerinadvance。Besides，hadthepeoplebeenallowedtoreplyinallliberty，theirresponsewasinanycasenotofmuchvaluesinceFrancewasscarcelymorecompetentthanIwas；thecombinedignoranceoftenmillionsisnottheequivalentofoneman’swisdom。Apeoplemaybeconsultedand，inanextremecase，maydeclarewhatformofgovernmentitwouldlikebest，butnotthatwhichitmostneeds。Nothingbutexperiencecandeterminethis；itmusthavetimetoascertainwhetherthepoliticalstructureisconvenient，substantial，abletowithstandinclemency，andadaptedtocustoms，habits，occupations，characters，peculiaritiesandcaprices。Forexample，theonewehavetriedhasneversatisfiedus；wehaveduringeightyyearsdemolisheditthirteentimes，eachtimesettingitupanew，andalwaysinvain，forneverhavewefoundonethatsuitedus。Ifothernationshavebeenmorefortunate，orifvariouspoliticalstructuresabroadhaveprovedstableandenduring，itisbecausethesehavebeenerectedinaspecialway。Foundedonsomeprimitive，massivepile，supportedbyanoldcentraledifice，oftenrestoredbutalwayspreserved，graduallyenlarged，and，afternumeroustrialsandadditions，theyhavebeenadaptedtothewantsofitsoccupants。Itiswelltoadmit，perhaps，thatthereisnootherwayoferectingapermanentbuilding。

Neverhasonebeenputupinstantaneously，afteranentirelynewdesign，andaccordingtothemeasurementsofpureReason。Asuddencontrivanceofanew，suitable，andenduringconstitutionisanenterprisebeyondtheforcesofthehumanmind。

Inanyevent，Icametotheconclusionthatifweshouldeverdiscovertheoneweneeditwouldnotbethroughsomefashionabletheory。Thepointis，ifitexists，todiscoverit，andnottoputittoavote。Todothatwouldnotonlybepretentiousitwouldbeuseless；historyandnaturewilldoitforus；itisforustoadaptourselvestothem，asitiscertaintheywillaccommodatethemselvestous。Thesocialandpoliticalmold，intowhichanationmayenterandremain，isnotsubjecttoitswill，butdeterminedbyitscharacteranditspast。Itisessentialthat，eveninitsleasttraits，itshouldbeshapedonthelivingmaterialtowhichitisapplied；otherwiseitwillburstandfalltopieces。Hence，ifweshouldsucceedinfindingours，itwillonlybethroughastudyofourselves，whilethemoreweunderstandexactlywhatweare，themorecertainlyshallwedistinguishwhatbestsuitsus。Weought，therefore，toreversetheordinarymethods，andformsomeconceptionofthenationbeforeformulatingitsconstitution。Doubtlessthefirstoperationismuchmoretediousanddifficultthanthesecond。Howmuchtime，howmuchstudy，howmanyobservationsrectifiedonebytheother，howmanyresearchesinthepastandthepresent，overallthedomainsofthoughtandofaction，whatmanifoldandage—longlaborsbeforewecanobtainanaccurateandcompleteideaofagreatpeople。

Apeoplewhichhaslivedapeople’sage，andwhichstilllives！Butitistheonlywaytoavoidtheunsoundconstructionbasedonameaninglessplanning。Ipromisedmyselfthat，formyownpart，ifI

shouldsomedayundertaketoformapoliticalopinion，itwouldbeonlyafterhavingstudiedFrance。

WhatiscontemporaryFrance？ToanswerthisquestionwemustknowhowthisFranceisformed，or，whatisstillbetter，toactasspectatoratitsformation。Attheendofthelastcentury（in1789），likeamoltinginsect，itunderwentametamorphosis。Itsancientorganizationisdissolved；ittearsawayitsmostprecioustissuesandfallsintoconvulsions，whichseemmortal。Then，aftermultipliedthroesandapainfullethargy，itre—establishesitself。Butitsorganizationisnolongerthesame:bysilentinteriortravailanewbeingissubstitutedfortheold。In1808，itsleadingcharacteristicsaredecreedanddefined:departments，arondissements，cantonsandcommunes，nochangehavesincetakenplaceinitsexteriordivisionsandfunctions。Concordat，Code，Tribunals，University，Institute，Prefects，CouncilofState，Taxes，Collectors，CoursdesComptes，auniformandcentralizedadministration，itsprincipalorgans，arestillthesame。Nobility，commoners，artisans，peasants，eachclasshashenceforththeposition，thesentiments，thetraditionswhichweseeatthepresentday（1875）。Thusthenewcreatureisatoncestableandcomplete；consequentlyitsstructure，itsinstinctsanditsfacultiesmarkinadvancethecirclewithinwhichitsthoughtanditsactionwillbestimulated。Aroundit，othernations，somemoreadvanced，otherslessdeveloped，allwithgreatercaution，somewithbetterresults，attemptsimilarlyatransformationfromafeudaltoamodernstate；theprocesstakesplaceeverywhereandallbutsimultaneously。But，underthisnewsystemasbeneaththeancient，theweakisalwaysthepreyofthestrong。Woetothose（nations）whoseretardedevolutionexposesthemtotheneighborsuddenlyemancipatedfromhischrysalisstate，andisthefirsttogoforthfullyarmed！

Woelikewisetohimwhosetooviolentandtooabruptevolutionhasbadlybalancedhisinternaleconomy。Who，throughtheexaggerationofhisgoverningforces，throughthedeteriorationofhisdeep—seatedorgans，throughthegradualimpoverishmentofhisvitaltissuesiscondemnedtocommitinconsiderateacts，todebility，toimpotency，amidstsounderandbetter—balancedneighbors！Intheorganization，whichFranceeffectedforherselfatthebeginningofthe（19th）

century，allthegenerallinesofhercontemporaryhistoryweretraced。Herpoliticalrevolutions，socialUtopias，divisionofclasses，roleofthechurch，conductofthenobility，ofthemiddleclass，andofthepeople，thedevelopment，thedirection，ordeviationofphilosophy，oflettersandofthearts。Thatiswhy，shouldwewishtounderstandourpresentconditionourattentionalwaysrevertstotheterribleandfruitfulcrisisbywhichtheancientregimeproducedtheRevolution，andtheRevolutionthenewregime。

Ancientrégime，Revolution，newrégime，Iamgoingtotrytodescribethesethreeconditionswithexactitude。Ihavenootherobjectinview。Ahistorianmaybeallowedtheprivilegeofanaturalist；Ihaveregardedmysubjectthesameasthemetamorphosisofaninsect。Moreover，theeventissointerestinginitselfthatitisworththetroubleofbeingobservedforitsownsake，andnoeffortisrequiredtosuppressone’sulteriormotives。Freedfromallprejudice，curiositybecomesscientificandmaybecompletelyconcentratedonthesecretforces，whichguidethewonderfulprocess。

Theseforcesarethesituation，thepassions，theideas，thewillsofeachgroupofactors，andwhichcanbedefinedandalmostmeasured。

Theyareinfullview；wearenotreducedtoconjecturesaboutthem，touncertaindivination，tovagueindications。Bysingulargoodfortuneweperceivethementhemselves，theirexteriorandtheirinterior。TheFrenchmenoftheancientrégimearestillwithinvisualrange。Allofus，inouryouth，（around1840—50），haveencounteredoneormoreofthesurvivorsofthisvanishedsociety。Manyoftheirdwellings，withthefurniture，stillremainintact。Theirpicturesandengravingsenableustotakepartintheirdomesticlife，seehowtheydress，observetheirattitudesandfollowtheirmovements。Throughtheirliterature，philosophy，scientificpursuits，gazettes，andcorrespondence，wecanreproducetheirfeelingandthought，andevenenjoytheirfamiliarconversation。Themultitudeofmemoirs，issuingduringthepastthirtyyearsfrompublicandprivatearchives，leadusfromonedrawingroomtoanother，asifweborewithussomanylettersofintroduction。Theindependentdescriptionsbyforeigntravelers，intheirjournalsandcorrespondence，correctandcompletetheportraits，whichthissocietyhastracedofitself。Everythingthatitcouldstatehasbeenstated，except，*whatwascommonplaceandwell—knowntocontemporaries，*whateverseemedtechnical，tediousandvulgar，*whateverrelatedtotheprovinces，tothebourgeoisie，thepeasant，tothelaboringman，tothegovernment，andtothehousehold。

Ithasbeenmyaimtofillthisvoid，andmakeFranceknowntoothersoutsidethesmallcircleoftheliteraryandthecultivated。

OwingtothekindnessofM。Maury[1]andthepreciousindicationsofM。Boutaric，Ihavebeenabletoexamineamassofmanuscriptdocuments。Theseincludethecorrespondenceofalargenumberofintendants，（theRoyalgovernorofalargedistrict），thedirectorsofcustomsandtaxoffices，legalofficers，andprivatepersonsofeverykindandofeverydegreeduringthethirtylastyearsoftheancientregime。Alsoincludedarethereportsandregistersofthevariousdepartmentsoftheroyalhousehold，thereportsandregistersoftheStatesGeneralin176volumes，thedispatchesofmilitaryofficersin1789and1790，letters，memoirsanddetailedstatisticspreservedintheonehundredboxesoftheecclesiasticalcommittee，thecorrespondence，in94bundles，ofthedepartmentandmunicipalauthoritieswiththeministriesfrom1790to1799，thereportsoftheCouncilorsofStateonmissionattheendof1801，thereportsofprefectsundertheConsulate，theEmpire，andtheRestorationdownto1823。ThereissuchaquantityofunknownandinstructivedocumentsbesidesthesethatthehistoryoftheRevolutionseems，indeed，tobestillunwritten。Inanyevent，itisonlysuchdocuments，whichcanmakeallthesepeoplecomealive。Thelessernobles，thecurates，themonks，thenunsoftheprovinces，thealdermenandbourgeoisieofthetowns，theattorneysandsyndicsofthecountryvillages，thelaborersandartisans，theofficersandthesoldiers。Thesealoneenableustocontemplateandappreciateindetailthevariousconditionsoftheirexistence，theinteriorofaparsonage，ofaconvent，ofatown—

council，thewagesofaworkman，theproduceofafarm，thetaxesleviedonapeasant，thedutiesofatax—collector，theexpenditureofanobleorprelate，thebudget，retinueandceremonialofacourt。

Thankstosuchresources，weareabletogiveprecisefigures，toknowhourbyhourtheoccupationsofadayand，betterstill，readoffthebilloffareofagranddinner，andrecomposeallpartsofafull—

dresscostume。Wehaveeven，ontheonehand，samplesofthematerialsofthedresseswornbyMarieAntoinette，pinnedonpaperandclassifiedbydates。Andontheotherhand，wecantellwhatclotheswerewornbythepeasant，describethebreadheate，specifytheflouritwasmadeof，andstatethecostofapoundofitinsousanddeniers。[2]Withsuchresourcesonebecomesalmostcontemporarywiththemenwhosehistoryonewritesand，morethanonce，intheArchives，Ihave，whiletracingtheiroldhandwritingonthetime—stainedpaperbeforeme，beentemptedtospeakaloudwiththem。

H。A。Taine，August1875。

Notes:

[1]。Taine’sfriendwhowasthedirectoroftheFrenchNationalArchives。（SR。）

[2]。Onesouequals1/20thofafrancor5centimes。12diniersequaledonesou。（SR。）

BOOKFIRST。THESTRUCTUREOFTHEANCIENTSOCIETY。

CHAPTERI。THEORIGINOFPRIVILEGES。

In1789threeclassesofpersons，theClergy，theNoblesandtheKing，occupiedthemostprominentpositionintheStatewithalltheadvantagespertainingtheretonamely，authority，property，honors，or，attheveryleast，privileges，immunities，favors，pensions，preferences，andthelike。Iftheyoccupiedthispositionforsolongatime，itisbecauseforsolongatimetheyhaddeservedit。Theyhad，inshort，throughanimmenseandseculareffort，constructedbydegreesthethreeprincipalfoundationsofmodernsociety。

I。ServicesandRecompensesoftheClergy。

Ofthesethreelayeredfoundationsthemostancientanddeepestwastheworkoftheclergy。Fortwelvehundredyearsandmoretheyhadlaboreduponit，bothasarchitectsandworkmen，atfirstaloneandthenalmostalone。—Inthebeginning，duringthefirstfourcenturies，theyconstitutedreligionandthechurch。Letusponderoverthesetwowords；inordertoweighthemwell。Onetheonehand，inasocietyfoundedonconquest，hardandcoldlikeamachineofbrass，forcedbyitsverystructuretodestroyamongitssubjectsallcouragetoactandalldesiretolive，theyhadproclaimedthe"gladtidings，"heldforththe"kingdomofGod，"preachedlovingresignationinthehandsofaHeavenlyFather，inspiredpatience，gentleness，humility，self—abnegation，andcharity，andopenedtheonlyissuesbywhichManstiflingintheRoman’ergastulum’couldagainbreatheandseedaylight:andherewehavereligion。Ontheotherhand，inaStategraduallyundergoingdepopulation，crumblingaway，andfatallybecomingaprey，theyhadformedalivingsocietygovernedbylawsanddiscipline，rallyingaroundacommonaimandacommondoctrine，sustainedbythedevotionofchiefsandbytheobedienceofbelieves，alonecapableofsubsistingbeneaththefloodofbarbarianswhichtheempireinruinsufferedtopourinthroughitsbreaches:andherewehavethechurch。—Itcontinuestobuildonthesetwofirstfoundations，andaftertheinvasion，foroverfivehundredyears，itsaveswhatitcanstillsaveofhumanculture。Itmarchesinthevanofthebarbariansorconvertsthemdirectlyaftertheirentrance，whichisawonderfuladvantage。Letusjudgeofitbyasinglefact:

InGreatBritain，whichlikeGaulhadbecomeLatin，butwhereoftheconquerorsremainpaganduringacenturyandahalf，arts，industries，society，language，allweredestroyed；nothingremainedofanentirepeople，eithermassacredorfugitive，butslaves。Wehavestilltodivinetheirtraces；reducedtotheconditionofbeastsofburden，theydisappearfromhistory。SuchmighthavebeenthefateofEuropeiftheclergyhadnotpromptlytamedthefiercebrutestowhichitbelonged。

Beforethebishopinhisgildedcopeorbeforethemonk，theconvertedGerman"emaciated，cladinskins，"wan，"dirtierandmorespottedthanachameleon，"[1]stoodfear—strickenasbeforeasorcerer。Inhiscalmmoments，afterthechaseorinebriety，thevaguedivinationofamysteriousandgrandiosefuture，thedimconceptionofanunknowntribunal，therudimentofconsciencewhichhealreadyhadinhisforestsbeyondtheRhine，arousesinhimthroughsuddenalarmshalf—formed，menacingvisions。Atthemomentofviolatingasanctuaryheaskshimselfwhetherhemaynotfallonitsthresholdwithvertigoandabrokenneck。[2]Convictedthroughhisownperplexity，hestopsandsparesthefarm，thevillage，andthetown，whichliveunderthepriest’sprotection。Iftheanimalimpulseofrage，orofprimitivelusts，leadshimtomurderortorob，later，aftersatiety，intimesofsicknessorofmisfortune，takingtheadviceofhisconcubineorofhiswife，herepentsandmakesrestitutiontwofold，tenfold，ahundredfold，unstintedinhisgiftsandimmunities。[3]Thus，overthewholeterritorytheclergymaintainandenlargetheirasylumsfortheoppressedandthevanquished。—Ontheotherhand，amongthewarriorchiefswithlonghair，bythesideofkingscladinfurs，themiteredbishopandabbot，withshavenbrows，takeseatsintheassemblies；

theyaloneknowhowtousethepenandhowtodiscuss。Secretaries，councilors，theologians，theyparticipateinalledicts；theyhavetheirhandinthegovernment；theystrivethroughitsagencytobringalittleorderoutofimmensedisorder；torenderthelawmorerationalandmorehumane，tore—establishorpreservepiety，instruction，justice，property，andespeciallymarriage。Totheirascendancyiscertainlyduethepolicesystem，suchasitwas，intermittentandincomplete，whichpreventedEuropefromfallingintoaMongoliananarchy。If，downtotheendofthetwelfthcentury，theclergybearsheavilyontheprinces，itisespeciallytorepressinthemandbeneaththemthebrutalappetites，therebellionsoffleshandblood，theoutburstsandrelapsesofirresistibleferocitywhichareunderminingthesocialfabric。—Meanwhile，initschurchesandinitsconvents，itpreservestheancientacquisitionsofhumanity，theLatintongue，Christianliteratureandtheology，aportionofpaganliteratureandscience，architecture，sculpture，painting，theartsandindustrieswhichaidworship。Italsopreservedthemorevaluableindustries，whichprovidemanwithbread，clothing，andshelter，andespeciallythegreatestofallhumanacquisitions，andthemostopposedtothevagabondhumoroftheidleandplunderingbarbarian，thehabitandtasteforlabor。InthedistrictsdepopulatedthroughRomanexactions，throughtherevoltoftheBagaudes，throughtheinvasionoftheGermans，andtheraidsofbrigands，theBenedictinemonkbuilthiscabinofboughsamidbriersandbrambles。[4]Largeareasaroundhim，formerlycultivated，arenothingbutabandonedthickets。Alongwithhisassociatesheclearsthegroundanderectsbuildings；hedomesticateshalf—tamedanimals，heestablishesafarm，amill，aforge，anoven，andshopsforshoesandclothing。Accordingtotherulesofhisorder，hereadsdailyfortwohours。Hegivessevenhourstomanuallabor，andheneithereatsnordrinksmorethanisabsolutelyessential。Throughhisintelligent，voluntarylabor，conscientiouslyperformedandwithaviewtothefuture，heproducesmorethanthelaymandoes。Throughhistemperate，judicious，economicalsystemheconsumeslessthanthelaymandoes。

Henceitisthatwherethelaymanhadfailedhesustainshimselfandevenprospers。[5]Hewelcomestheunfortunate，feedsthem，setsthemtowork，andunitestheminmatrimonyandbeggars，vagabonds，andfugitivepeasantsgatheraroundthesanctuary。Theircampgraduallybecomesavillageandnextasmalltown；manplowsassoonashecanbesureofhiscrops，andbecomesthefatherofafamilyassoonasheconsidershimselfabletoprovideforhisoffspring。Inthiswaynewcentersofagricultureandindustryareformed，whichlikewisebecomenewcentersofpopulation。[6]

Tofoodforthebodyaddfoodforthesoul，notlessessential。

For，alongwithnourishment，itwasstillnecessarytofurnishManwithinducementstolive，or，attheveryleast，withtheresignationthatmakeslifeendurable，andalsowiththepoeticdaydreamstakingtheplaceofmassinghappiness。[7]Downtothemiddleofthethirteenthcenturytheclergystandsalmostaloneinfurnishingthis。

Throughitsinnumerablelegendsofsaints，throughitscathedralsandtheirconstruction，throughitsstatuesandtheirexpression，throughitsservicesandtheirstilltransparentmeaning，itrenderedvisible"thekingdomofGod。"Itfinallysetsupanidealworldattheendofthepresentone，likeamagnificentgoldenpavilionattheendofamirymorass。[8]Thesaddenedheart，athirstfortendernessandserenity，takesrefugeinthisdivineandgentleworld。Persecutorsthere，abouttostrike，arearrestedbyaninvisiblehand；wildbeastsbecomedocile；thestagsoftheforestcomeoftheirownaccordeverymorningtodrawthechariotsofthesaints；thecountrybloomsforthemlikeanewParadise；theydieonlywhenitpleasesthem。

Meanwhiletheycomfortmankind；goodness，piety，forgivenessflowsfromtheirlipswithineffablesweetness；witheyesupturnedtoheaven，theyseeGod，andwithouteffort，asinadream，theyascendintothelightandseatthemselvesatHisrighthand。Howdivinethelegend，howinestimableinvalue，when，undertheuniversalreignofbruteforce，toendurethislifeitwasnecessarytoimagineanother，andtorenderthesecondasvisibletothespiritualeyeasthefirstwastothephysicaleye。Theclergythusnourishedmenformorethantwelvecenturies，andinthegrandeurofitsrecompensewecanestimatethedepthoftheirgratitude。Itspopes，fortwohundredyears，werethedictatorsofEurope。Itorganizedcrusades，dethronedmonarchs，anddistributedkingdoms。Itsbishopsandabbotsbecamehere，sovereignprinces，andthere，veritablefoundersofdynasties。

Itheldinitsgraspathirdoftheterritory，one—halfoftherevenue，andtwo—thirdsofthecapitalofEurope。LetusnotbelievethatMancounterfeitsgratitude，orthathegiveswithoutavalidmotive；heistooselfishandtooenviousforthat。Whatevermaybetheinstitution，ecclesiasticorsecular，whatevermaybetheclergy，BuddhistorChristian，thecontemporarieswhoobserveitforfortygenerationsarenotbadjudges。Theysurrendertoittheirwillandtheirpossessions，justinproportiontoitsservices，andtheexcessoftheirdevotionmaymeasuretheimmensityofitsbenefaction。

II。ServicesandRecompensesoftheNobles。

Uptothispointnoaidisfoundagainstthepoweroftheswordandthebattle—axexceptinpersuasionandinpatience。ThoseStateswhich，imitatingtheoldempire，attemptedtoriseupintocompactorganizations，andtointerposeabarrieragainstconstantinvasion，obtainednoholdontheshiftingsoil；afterCharlemagneeverythingmeltsaway。TherearenomoresoldiersafterthebattleofFontanet；

duringhalfacenturybandsoffourorfivehundredoutlawssweepoverthecountry，killing，burning，anddevastatingwithimpunity。But，bywayofcompensation，thedissolutionoftheStateraisesupatthisverytimeamilitarygeneration。Eachpettychieftainhasplantedhisfeetfirmlyonthedomainheoccupies，orwhichhewithholds；henolongerkeepsitintrust，orforuse，butasproperty，andaninheritance。Itishisownmanor，hisownvillage，hisownearldom；itnolongerbelongstotheking；hecontendsforitinhisownright。

Thebenefactor，theconservatoratthistimeisthemancapableoffighting，ofdefendingothers，andsuchreallyisthecharacterofthenewlyestablishedclass。Thenoble，inthelanguageoftheday，isthemanofwar，thesoldier（miles），anditishewholaysthesecondfoundationofmodernsociety。

Inthetenthcenturyhisextractionisoflittleconsequence。HeisoftentimesaCarlovingiancount，abeneficiaryoftheking，thesturdyproprietorofoneofthelastoftheFrankestates。Inoneplaceheisamartialbishoporavaliantabbotinanotheraconvertedpagan，aretiredbandit，aprosperousadventurer，arudehuntsman，wholongsupportedhimselfbythechaseandonwildfruits。[9]TheancestorsofRoberttheStrongareunknown，andlaterthestoryrunsthattheCapetsaredescendedfromaParisianbutcher。Inanyeventthenobleofthatepochisthebrave，thepowerfulman，expertintheuseofarms，who，attheheadofatroop，insteadofflyingorpayingransom，offershisbreast，standsfirm，andprotectsapatchofthesoilwithhissword。Toperformthisservicehehasnoneedofancestors；allthatherequiresiscourage，forheishimselfanancestor；securityforthepresent，whichheinsures，istooacceptabletopermitanyquibblingabouthistitle。—Finally，aftersomanycenturies，wefindeachdistrictpossessingitsarmedmen，asettledbodyoftroopscapableofresistingnomadicinvasion；thecommunityisnolongerapreytostrangers。AttheendofacenturythisEurope，whichhadbeensackedbytheVikings，istothrow200，000armedmenintoAsia。

Henceforth，bothnorthandsouth，inthefaceofMoslemsandofpagans，insteadofbeingconquereditistoconquer。Forthesecondtimeanidealfigurebecomesapparentafterthatofthesaint，[10]

thehero；andthenewbornsentiment，aseffectiveastheoldone，thusgroupsmentogetherintoastablesociety。—Thisconsistsofaresidentcorpsofmen—at—arms，inwhich，fromfathertoson，oneisalwaysasoldier。Eachindividualisbornintoitwithhishereditaryrank，hislocalpost，hispayinlandedproperty，withthecertaintyofneverbeingabandonedbyhischieftain，andwiththeobligationofgivinghislifeforhischieftainintimeofneed。Inthisepochofperpetualwarfareonlyoneset—upisvalid，thatofabodyofmenconfrontingtheenemy，andsuchisthefeudalsystem；wecanjudgebythistraitaloneoftheperilswhichitwardsoff，andoftheservicewhichitenjoins。"Inthosedays，"saystheSpanishgeneralchronicle，"kings，counts，nobles，andknights，inordertobereadyatallhours，kepttheirhorsesintheroomsinwhichtheysleptwiththeirwives。"Theviscountinhistowerdefendingtheentrancetoavalleyorthepassageofaford，themarquisthrownasaforlornhopeontheburningfrontier，sleepswithhishandonhisweapon，likeanAmericanlieutenantamongtheSiouxbehindawesternstockade。Hisdwellingissimplyacampandarefuge。Strawandheapsofleavescoverthepavementofthegreathall，hereherestswithhistroopers，takingoffaspurifhehasachancetosleep。Theloopholesinthewallscarcelyallowdaylighttoenter；themainthingisnottobeshotwitharrows。Everytaste，everysentimentissubordinatedtomilitaryservice；therearecertainplacesontheEuropeanfrontierwhereachildoffourteenisrequiredtomarch，andwherethewidowuptosixtyisrequiredtoremarry。Mentofilluptheranks，mentomountguard，isthecall，whichatthismomentissuesfromallinstitutionslikethesummonsofabrazenhorn。—Thankstothesebraves，thepeasant（villanus）enjoysprotection。Heisnolongertobeslaughtered，nolongertobeledcaptivewithhisfamily，inherds，withhisneckintheyoke。Heventurestoplowandtosow，andtoreplyuponhiscrops；incaseofdangerheknowsthathecanfindanasylumforhimself，andforhisgrainandcattle，inthecircleofpalisadesatthebaseofthefortress。Bydegreesnecessityestablishesatacitcontractbetweenthemilitarychieftainofthedonjonandtheearlysettlersoftheopencountry，andthisbecomesarecognizedcustom。Theyworkforhim，cultivatehisground，dohiscarting，payhimquittances，somuchforhouse，somuchperheadforcattle，somuchtoinheritortosell；heiscompelledtosupporthistroop。Butwhentheserightsaredischargedheerrsif，throughprideorgreed，hetakesmorethanhisdue。—Astothevagabonds，thewretched，who，intheuniversaldisorderanddevastation，seekrefugeunderhisguardianship，theirconditionisharder。Thesoilbelongstothelordbecausewithouthimitwouldbeuninhabitable。Ifheassignsthemaplotofground，ifhepermitsthemmerelytoencamponit，ifhesetsthemtoworkorfurnishesthemwithseedsitisonconditions，whichheprescribes。Theyaretobecomehisserfs，subjecttothelawsonmainmorte。[11]Wherevertheymaygoheistohavetherightoffetchingthemback。Fromfathertosontheyarehisborndomestics，applicabletoanypursuithepleases，taxableandworkableathisdiscretion。Theyarenotallowedtotransmitanythingtoachildunlessthelatter，"livingfromtheirpot，"can，aftertheirdeath，continuetheirservice。"Nottobekilled，"saysStendhal，"andtohaveagoodsheepskincoatinwinter，was，formanypeopleinthetenthcentury，theheightoffelicity"；letusadd，forawoman，thatofnotbeingviolatedbyawholeband。Whenweclearlyrepresenttoourselvestheconditionofhumanityinthosedays，wecancomprehendhowmenreadilyacceptedthemostobnoxiousoffeudalrights，eventhatofthedroitduseigneur。Theriskstowhichtheyweredailyexposedwereevenworse。[12]Theproofofitisthatthepeopleflockedtothefeudalstructureassoonasitwascompleted。InNormandy，forinstance，whenRollohaddividedoffthelandswithaline，andhungtherobbers，theinhabitantsoftheneighboringprovincesrushedintoestablishthemselves。Theslightestsecuritysufficedtorepopulateacountry。

Peopleaccordinglylived，orratherbegantoliveoncemore，undertherude，iron—glovedhandwhichusedthemroughly，butwhichaffordedthemprotection。Theseignior，sovereignandproprietor，maintainsforhimselfunderthisdoubletitle，themoors，theriver，theforest，allthegame。Itisnogreatevil，sincethecountryisnearlyadesert，andhedevoteshisleisuretoexterminatinglargewildbeasts。Healonepossessedtheresources。Heistheonlyonethatisabletoconstructthemill，theoven，andthewinepress；toestablishtheferry，thebridge，orthehighway，todikeinamarsh，andtoraiseorpurchaseabull。Toindemnifyhimselfhetaxesforthese，forforcestheiruse。Ifheisintelligentandagoodmanagerofmen，ifheseekstoderivethegreatestprofitfromhisground，hegraduallyrelaxes，orallowstobecomerelaxed，themeshesofthenetinwhichhispeasantsandserfsworkunprofitablybecausetheyaretootightlydrawn。Habits，necessity，avoluntaryorforcedconformity，havetheireffect。Lords，peasants，serfs，andbourgeois，intheendadaptedtotheircondition，boundtogetherbyacommoninterest，formtogetherasociety，averitablecorporation。Theseigniory，thecounty，theduchybecomesapatrimonywhichislovedthroughablindinstinct，andtowhichallaredevoted。Itisconfoundedwiththeseigniorandhisfamily；inthisrelationpeopleareproudofhim。Theynarratehisfeatsofarms；theycheerhimashiscavalcadepassesalongthestreet；theyrejoiceinhismagnificencethroughsympathy。[13]Ifhebecomesawidowerandhasnochildren，theysenddeputationstohimtoentreathimtoremarry，inorderthatathisdeaththecountrymaynotfallintoawarofsuccessionorbegivenuptotheencroachmentofneighbors。Thusthereisarevival，afterathousandyears，ofthemostpowerfulandthemostvivaciousofthesentimentsthatsupporthumansociety。Thisoneisthemorepreciousbecauseitiscapableofexpanding。Inorderthatthesmallfeudalpatrimonytobecomethegreatnationalpatrimony，itnowsufficesfortheseignioriestobecombinedinthehandsofasinglelord，andthattheking，chiefofthenobles，shouldoverlaytheworkofthenobleswiththethirdfoundationofFrance。

III。ServicesandRecompensesoftheKing。

Kingsbuiltthewholeofthisfoundation，onestoneafteranother。HuguesCapetlaidthefirstone。BeforehimroyaltyconferredontheKingnorighttoaprovince，notevenLaon；itishewhoaddedhisdomaintothetitle。Duringeighthundredyears，throughconquest，craft，inheritance，theworkofacquisitiongoeson；evenunderLouisXVFranceisaugmentedbytheacquisitionofLorraineandCorsica。

Startingfromnothing，theKingisthemakerofacompactState，containingthepopulationoftwenty—sixmillions，andthenthemostpowerfulin—Europe。—Throughoutthisintervalheisattheheadofthenationaldefense。Heistheliberatorofthecountryagainstforeigners，againstthePopeinthefourteenthcentury，againsttheEnglishinthefifteenth，againsttheSpaniardsinthesixteenth。Intheinterior，fromthetwelfthcenturyonward，withthehelmetonhisbrow，andalwaysontheroad，heisthegreatjusticiary，demolishingthetowersofthefeudalbrigands，repressingtheexcessesofthepowerful，andprotectingtheoppressed。[14]Heputsanendtoprivatewarfare；heestablishesorderandtranquility。Thiswasanimmenseaccomplishment，which，fromLouisleGrostoSt。Louis，fromPhilippeleBeltoCharlesVII，continuesuninterruptedlyuptothemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturyintheedictagainstduelsandinthe"GrandJours。"[15]Meanwhileallusefulprojectscarriedoutunderhisorders，ordevelopedunderhispatronage，roads，harbors，canals，asylums，universities，academies，institutionsofpiety，ofrefuge，ofeducation，ofscience，ofindustry，andofcommerce，bearshisimprintandproclaimthepublicbenefactor。—Servicesofthischaracterchallengeaproportionaterecompense；itisallowedthatfromfathertosonheisweddedtoFrance；thatsheactsonlythroughhim；thatheactsonlyforher；whileeverysouvenirofthepastandeverypresentinterestcombinetosanctionthisunion。TheChurchconsecratesitatRheimsbyasortofeighthsacrament，accompaniedwithlegendsandmiracles；heistheanointedofGod。[16]Thenobles，throughanoldinstinctofmilitaryfealty，considerthemselveshisbodyguard，anddowntoAugust10，1789，rushforwardtodieforhimonhisstaircase；

heistheirgeneralbybirth。Thepeople，downto1789，regardhimastheredresserofabuses，theguardianoftheright，theprotectoroftheweak，thegreatalmonerandtheuniversalrefuge。AtthebeginningofthereignofLouisXVI"shoutsofViveleroi，whichbeganatsixo’clockinthemorning，continuedscarcelyinterrupteduntilaftersunset。"[17]WhentheDauphinwasbornthejoyofFrancewasthatofawholefamily。"Peoplestoppedeachotherinthestreets，spoketogetherwithoutanyacquaintance，andeverybodyembracedeverybodyheknew。"[18]Everyone，throughvaguetradition，throughimmemorialrespect，feelsthatFranceisashipconstructedbyhishandsandthehandsofhisancestors。Inthissense，thevesselishisproperty；itishisrighttoitisthesameasthatofeachpassengertohisprivategoods。Theking’sonlydutyconsistsinbeingexpertandvigilantinguidingacrosstheoceansandbeneathhisbannerthemagnificentshipuponwhicheveryone’swelfaredepends。—Undertheascendancyofsuchanideahewasallowedtodoeverything。Byfairmeansorfoul，hesoreducedancientauthoritiesastomakethemafragment，apretense，asouvenir。Thenoblesaresimplyhisofficialsorhiscourtiers。SincetheConcordathenominatesthedignitariesoftheChurch。TheStates—Generalwerenotconvokedforahundredandseventy—fiveyears；theprovincialassemblies，whichcontinuetosubsist，donothingbutapportionthetaxes；theparliamentsareexiledwhentheyriskaremonstrance。Throughhiscouncil，hisintendants，hissub—delegates，heintervenesinthemosttriflingoflocalmatters。Hisrevenueisfourhundredandseventy—sevenmillions。[19]Hedisbursesone—halfofthatoftheClergy。Inshort，heisabsolutemaster，andhesodeclareshimself。[20]—Possessions，freedomfromtaxation，thesatisfactionsofvanity，afewremnantsoflocaljurisdictionandauthority，areconsequentlyallthatislefttohisancientrivals；inexchangeforthesetheyenjoyhisfavorsandmarksofpreference。—Such，inbrief，isthehistoryoftheprivilegedclasses，theClergy，theNobles，andtheKing。Itmustbekeptinmindtocomprehendtheirsituationatthemomentoftheirfall；havingcreatedFrance，theyenjoyit。Letusseeclearlywhatbecomesofthemattheendoftheeighteenthcentury；whatportionoftheiradvantagestheypreserved；whatservicestheystillrender，andwhatservicestheydonotrender。

Notes:

[1]。"LesMoinesd’Occident，"byMontalembert，I。277。St。LupicinbeforetheBurgundianKingChilperic，II。416。SaintKarileffbeforeKingChildebert。Cf。passim，GregoryofToursandtheBollandistcollection。

[2]。Nolegendismorefrequentlyencountered；wefinditaslateasthetwelfthcentury。

[3]。Chilperic，forexample，actingundertheadviceofFredegondeafterthedeathofalltheirchildren。

[4]。Montalembert，ibid。，II。book8；andespecially"LesForêtsdelaFrancedansl’antiquitéetauMoyenAge，"byAlfredMaury。Spinoeetvepresisaphraseconstantlyrecurringinthelivesofthesaints。

[5]。WefindthesamethingtodaywiththecoloniesofTrappistsinAlgiers。

[6]。"Polyptiqued’Irminon，"byGuérard。InthisworkweseetheprosperityofthedomainbelongingtotheAbbeyofSt。GermaindesPrèsattheendoftheeighthcentury。AccordingtoM。Guérard’sstatistics，thepeasantryofPaliseauwereaboutasprosperousinthetimeofCharlemagneasatthepresentday。

[7]。Taine’sdefinitionwouldalsofitcontemporary（1999）drugsandvideoentertainmentwhichalsoprovidemankindwithbothhope，pleasureandentertainment。（SR。）

[8]。Therearetwenty—fivethousandlivesofthesaints，betweenthesixthandthetenthcenturies，collectedbytheBollandists。—ThelastthataretrulyinspiredarethoseofSt。FrancisofAssisiandhiscompanionsatthebeginningofthefourteenthcentury。ThesamevividsentimentextendsdowntotheendofthefifteenthcenturyintheworksofFraAngelicoandHansMemling。—TheSainteChapelleinParis，theupperchurchatAssisi，Dante’sParadise，andtheFioretti，furnishanideaofthesevisions。Asregardsmodernliterature，thestateofabeliever’ssoulinthemiddleagesisperfectlydescribedinthe"PélerinageàKevlaar，"byHenriHeine，andin"LesReliquesvivantes，"byTourgueneff。

[9]。As，forexample，Tertulle，founderofthePlatagenetfamily，Rollo，DukeofNormandy，Hugues，AbbotofSt。MartinofToursandofSt。Denis。

[10]。Seethe"Cantilenes"ofthetenthcenturyinwhichthe"ChansonsdeGeste"areforeshadowed。

[11]。Lawsgoverningthefeudalsystem（1372）wherethefeudallordisunabletotransmithispropertybytestamentbuthastoleavethemtothenextholderofthetitle。The"mainmortables"wereserfswhobelongedtotheproperty。（SR。）

[12]。Seeinthe"VoyagesduCaillaud，"inNubiaandAbyssinia，theraidsforslavesmadebythePacha’sarmies；Europepresentedaboutthesamespectaclebetweentheyears800and900。

[13]。Seethezealofsubjectsfortheirlordsinthehistoriansofthemiddleages；GastonPhoebus，ComtedeFoix，andGuy，ComtedeFlandresinFroissart；RaymonddeBéziersandRaymonddeToulouse，inthechronicleofToulouse。ThisprofoundsentimentofsmalllocalpatrimonicsisapparentateachprovincialassemblyinNormandy，Brittany，Franche—Comté，etc。

[14]。Suger，LifeofLouisVI。

[15]。"LesGrandJoursd’Auvergne，"byFléchier，ed。Chéruel。Thelastfeudalbrigand，theBaronofPlumartin，inPoitou，wastaken，tried，andbeheadedunderLouisXVin1756。

[16]。AslateasLouisXVaprocèsverbalismadeofanumberofcuresoftheKing’sevil。

[17]。"MémoiresofMadameCampan，"I。89；II。215。

[18]。In1785anEnglishmanvisitingFranceboastsofthepoliticallibertyenjoyedinhiscountry。AsanoffsettothistheFrenchreproachtheEnglishforhavingdecapitatedCharlesI。，and"gloryinhavingalwaysmaintainedaninviolableattachmenttotheirownking；afidelity，arespectwhichnoexcessorseverityonhisparthasevershaken。"（"AComparativeViewoftheFrenchandoftheEnglishNation，"byJohnAndrews，p。257。）

[19]。MemoirsofD’Augeard，privatesecretaryoftheQueen，andaformerfarmer—general。

[20]。ThefollowingisthereplyofLouisXV。totheParliamentofParis，March3，1766，inalitdejustice:"Thesovereignauthorityisvestedinmyperson……Thelegislativepower，withoutdependenceandwithoutdivision，existsinmyselfalone。Publicsecurityemanateswhollyfrommyself；Iamitssupremecustodian。Mypeopleareoneonlywithme；nationalrightsandinterests，ofwhichanattemptismadetoformabodyseparatefromthoseofthemonarch，arenecessarilycombinedwithmyown，andrestsonlyinmyhands。"

CHAPTERII。THEPRIVILEGEDCLASSES。

I。NumberofthePrivilegedClasses。

Theprivilegedclassesnumberabout270，000persons，comprisingofthenobility，140，000andoftheclergy130，000。[1]Thismakesfrom25，000to30，000noblefamilies；23，000monksin2，500monasteries，and37，000nunsin1，500convents，and60，000curatesandvicarsinasmanychurchesandchapels。Shouldthereaderdesireamoredistinctimpressionofthem，hemayimagineoneachsquareleagueofterritory[2]，andtoeachthousandofinhabitants，onenoblefamilyinitsweathercockmansion。Ineachvillagethereisacurateandhischurch，and，everysixorsevenleagues，acommunityofmenorofwomen。WehaveheretheancientchieftainsandfoundersofFrance；

thusentitled，theystillenjoymanypossessionsandmanyrights。

II。TheirPossessions，Capital，andRevenue。

Letusalwayskeepinmindwhattheywere，inordertocomprehendwhattheyare。Greatastheiradvantagesmaybe，thesearemerelytheremainsofstillgreateradvantages。Thisorthatbishoporabbot，thisorthatcountorduke，whosesuccessorsmaketheirbowsatVersailles，wasformerlytheequalsoftheCarlovingiansandthefirstCapets。ASiredeMontlhéryheldKingPhilippeIincheck。[3]TheabbeyofSt。GermaindesPréspossessed430，000hectaresofland（about900，000acres），almosttheextentofanentiredepartment。Weneednotbesurprisedthattheyremainedpowerful，and，especially，rich；nostabilityisgreaterthanthatofan。associativebody。Aftereighthundredyears，inspiteofsomanystrokesoftheroyalax，andtheimmensechangeinthecultureofsociety，theoldfeudalrootlastsandstillvegetates。Weremarkitfirstinthedistributionofproperty。[4]Afifthofthesoilbelongstothecrownandthecommunes，afifthtotheThird—Estate，afifthtotheruralpopulation，afifthtothenoblesandafifthtotheclergy。

Accordingly，ifwedeductthepubliclands，theprivilegedclassesownone—halfofthekingdom。Thislargeportion，moreover，isatthesametimetherichest，foritcomprisesalmostallthelargeandimposingbuildings，thepalaces，castles，convents，andcathedrals，andalmostallthevaluablemovableproperty，suchasfurniture，plate，objectsofart，theaccumulatedmasterpiecesofcenturies。——Wecanjudgeofitbyanestimateoftheportionbelongingtotheclergy。Itspossessions，capitalized，amounttonearly4，000，000，000francs。[5]

Incomefromthisamountsto80or100millions。Tothismustbeaddedthedime（ortithes），123millionsperannum，inall200millions，asumwhichmustbedoubledtoshowitsequivalentatthepresentday。

Wemustalsoaddthechancecontributionsandtheusualchurchcollections。[6]Tofullyrealizethebreadthofthisgoldenstreamletuslookatsomeofitsaffluents。399monksatPrémontréestimatetheirrevenueatmorethan1，000，000livres，andtheircapitalat45，000，000。TheProvincialoftheDominicansofToulouseadmits，forhistwohundredandthirty—sixmonks，"morethan200，000livresnetrevenue，notincludingtheconventanditsenclosure；also，inthecolonies，realestate，Negroesandothereffects，valuedatseveralmillions。"TheBenedictinesofCluny，numbering298，enjoyanincomeof1，800，000livres。ThoseofSaint—Maur，numbering1672，estimatethemovablepropertyoftheirchurchesandhousesat24，000，000，andtheirnetrevenueat8millions，"withoutincludingthatwhichaccruestoMessieurstheabbotsandpriorscommendatory，"whichmeansasmuchandperhapsmore。DomRocourt，abbotofClairvaux，hasfrom300，000to400，000livresincome；theCardinaldeRohan，archbishopofStrasbourg，morethan1，000，000。[7]InFranche—Comté，AlsaceandRoussillontheclergyownone—halfoftheterritory，inHainautandArtois，three—quarters，inCambrésisfourteenhundredplow—areasoutofseventeenhundred。[8]AlmostthewholeofLeVelaybelongstotheBishopofPuy，theabbotofLaChaise—Dieu，thenoblechapterofBrionde，andtotheseigniorsofPolignac。ThecanonsofSt。Claude，intheJura，aretheproprietorsof12，000serfsor’mainmorts。’[9]—

Throughfortunesofthefirstclasswecanimaginethoseofthesecond。Asalongwiththenobleitcomprisestheennobled。Asthemagistratesfortwocenturies，andthefinanciersforonecenturyhadacquiredorpurchasednobility，itisclearthatherearetobefoundalmostallthegreatfortunesofFrance，oldornew，transmittedbyinheritance，obtainedthroughcourtfavors，oracquiredinbusiness。

Whenaclassreachesthesummititisrecruitedoutofthosewhoaremountingorclamberingup。Here，too，thereiscolossalwealth。Ithasbeencalculatedthatthepossessionsoftheprincesoftheroyalfamily，theComtésofArtoisandofProvence，theDucsd’OrléansanddePenthiévrethencoveredone—seventhoftheterritory。[10]Theprincesofthebloodhavetogetherarevenueoffrom24to25

millions；theDucd’Orléansalonehasarentalof11，500，000。[11]——

Thesearethevestigesofthefeudalrégime。SimilarvestigesarefoundinEngland，inAustria，inGermanyandinRussia。

Proprietorship，indeed，survivesalongtimesurvivesthecircumstancesonwhichitisfounded。Sovereigntyhadconstitutedproperty；divorcedfromsovereigntyithasremainedinthehandsformerlysovereign。Inthebishop，theabbotandthecount，thekingrespectedtheproprietorwhileoverthrowingtherival，and，intheexistingproprietorahundredtraitsstillindicatetheannihilatedormodifiedsovereign。

III。TheirImmunities。

Suchisthetotalorpartialexemptionfromtaxation。Thetax—

collectorshaltintheirpresencebecausethekingwellknowsthatfeudalpropertyhasthesameoriginashisown；ifroyaltyisoneprivilegeseignioryisanother；thekinghimselfissimplythemostprivilegedamongtheprivileged。Themostabsolute，themostinfatuatedwithhisrights，LouisXIV，entertainedscrupleswhenextremenecessitycompelledhimtoenforceoneverybodythetaxofthetenth。[12]Treaties，precedents，immemorialcustom，reminiscencesofancientrightsagainrestrainthefiscalhand。Theclearertheresemblanceoftheproprietortotheancientindependentsovereignthegreaterhisimmunity。—Insomeplacesarecenttreatyguaranteeshimbyhispositionasastranger，byhisalmostroyalextraction。"InAlsaceforeignprincesinpossession，withtheTeutonicorderandtheorderofMalta，enjoyexemptionfromallrealandpersonalcontributions。""InLorrainethechapterofRemiremonthastheprivilegeofassessingitselfinallstateimpositions。"[13]ElsewhereheisprotectedbythemaintenanceoftheprovincialAssemblies，andthroughtheincorporationofthenobilitywiththesoil:inLanguedocandinBrittanythecommonersalonepaidthetaille[14]—Everywhereelsehisqualitypreservedhimfromit，him，hischateauandthechateau’sdependencies；thetaillereacheshimonlythroughhisfarmers。Andbetterstill，itissufficientthathehimselfshouldwork，orhissteward，tocommunicatetothelandhisoriginalindependence。Assoonashetouchesthesoil，eitherpersonallyorthroughhisagent，heexemptsfourplowing—areas（quatrecharrues），threehundredarpents，[15]whichinotherhandswouldpay2，000francstax。Besidesthisheisexcempton"thewoods，themeadows，thevines，thepondsandtheenclosedlandbelongingtothechateau，ofwhateverextentitmaybe。"Consequently，inLimousinandelsewhere，inregionsprincipallydevotedtopasturageortovineyards，hetakescaretomanagehimself，ortohavemanaged，acertainportionofhisdomain；

inthiswayheexemptsitfromthetaxcollector。[16]Thereisyetmore。InAlsace，throughanexpresscovenanthedoesnotpayacentoftax。Thus，aftertheassaultsoffourhundredandfiftyyears，taxation，thefirstoffiscalinstrumentalities，themostburdensomeofall，leavesfeudalpropertyalmostintact。[17]——Forthelastcentury，twonewtools，thecapitation—taxandthevingtièmes，appearmoreeffective，andyetarebutlittlemoreso。—Firstofall，throughamasterstrokeofecclesiasticaldiplomacy，theclergydivertsorweakenstheblow。Asitisanorganization，holdingassemblies，itisabletonegotiatewiththekingandbuyitselfoff。Toavoidbeingtaxedbyothersittaxesitself。Itmakesitappearthatitspaymentsarenotcompulsorycontributions，buta"freegift。"Itobtainstheninexchangeamassofconcessions，isabletodiminishthisgift，sometimesnottomakeit，inanyeventtoreduceittosixteenmillionseveryfiveyears，thatistosaytoalittlemorethanthreemillionsperannum。In1788itisonly1，800，000livres，andin1789

itisrefusedaltogether。[18]Andstillbetter:asitborrowstoprovideforthistax，andasthedécimeswhichitraisesonitspropertydonotsufficetoreducethecapitalandmeettheinterestonitsdebt，ithastheadroitnesstosecure，besides，agrantfromtheking。Outoftheroyaltreasury，eachyear，itreceives2，500，000

livres，sothat，insteadofpaying，itreceives。In1787itreceivesinthisway1，500，000livres。—Asforthenobles，they，beingunabletocombinetogether，tohaverepresentatives，andtoactinapublicway，operateinsteadinaprivateway。Theycontactministers，intendants，sub—delegates，farmer—generals，andallothersclothedwithauthority，theirqualitysecuringattentions，considerationandfavors。Inthefirstplace，thisqualityexemptsthemselves，theirdependents，andthedependentsoftheirdependents，fromdraftinginthemilitia，fromlodgingsoldiers，from（lacorvée）laboringonthehighways。Next，thecapitationbeingfixedaccordingtothetaxsystem，theypaylittle，becausetheirtaxationisoflittleaccount。Moreover，eachonebringsallhiscredittobearagainstassessments。"Yoursympatheticheart，"

writesoneofthemtotheintendant，"willneverallowafatherofmyconditiontobetaxedforthevingtiémesrigidlylikeafatheroflowbirth。"[19]Ontheotherhand，asthetaxpayerpaysthecapitation—taxathisactualresidence，oftenfarawayfromhisestates，andnoonehavinganyknowledgeofhispersonalincome，hemaypaywhateverseemstohimproper。Therearenoproceedingsagainsthim，ifheisanoble；

thegreatestcircumspectionisusedtowardspersonsofhighrank。"Intheprovinces，"saysTurgot，"thecapitation—taxoftheprivilegedclasseshasbeensuccessivelyreducedtoanexceedinglysmallmatter，whilstthecapitation—taxofthosewhoareliabletothetailleisalmostequaltotheaggregateofthattax。"Andfinally，"thecollectorsthinkthattheyareobligedtoacttowardsthemwithmarkedconsideration"evenwhentheyowe；"theresultofwhich，"saysNecker，"isthatveryancient，andmuchtoolargeamounts，oftheircapitation—taxremainunpaid。"Accordingly，nothavingbeenabletorepeltheassaultoftherevenueservicesinfronttheyevadeditordiminishedituntilitbecamealmostunobjectionable。InChampagne，onnearly1，500，000livresprovidedbythecapitation—tax，theypaidinonly14，000livres，"thatistosay，"2sousand2deniersforthesamepurposewhichcosts12sousperlivretothosechargeablewiththetaille。"AccordingtoCalonne，"ifconcessionsandprivilegeshadbeensuppressedthevingtièmeswouldhavefurnisheddoubletheamount。"Inthisrespectthemostopulentwerethemostskillfulinprotectingthemselves。"Withtheintendants，"saidtheDucd’Orleans，"Isettlematters，andpayaboutwhatIplease，"andhecalculatedthattheprovincialadministration，rigorouslytaxinghim，wouldcausehimtolose300，000livresrental。Ithasbeenprovedthattheprincesofthebloodpaid，fortheirtwo—twentieths，188，000insteadof2，400，000livres。Inthemain，inthisrégime，exceptionfromtaxationisthelastremnantofsovereigntyor，atleast，ofindependence。Theprivilegedpersonavoidsorrepelstaxation，notmerelybecauseitdespoilshim，butbecauseitbelittleshim；itisamarkofthecommoner，thatistosay，offormerservitude，andheresiststhefisc（therevenueservices）asmuchthroughprideasthroughinterest。

IV。TheirFeudalRights。

Theseadvantagesaretheremainsofprimitivesovereignty。

Letusfollowhimhometohisowndomain。Abishop，anabbé，achapteroftheclergy，anabbess，eachhasonelikealayseignior；

for，informertimes，themonasteryandthechurchweresmallgovernmentslikethecountyandtheduchy。—IntactontheotherbankoftheRhine，almostruinedinFrance，thefeudalstructureeverywheredisclosesthesameplan。Incertainplaces，betterprotectedorlessattacked，ithaspreservedallitsancientexternals。AtCahors，thebishop—countofthetownhadtheright，onsolemnlyofficiating，"toplacehishelmet，cuirass，gauntletsandswordonthealtar。"[20]AtBesan？on，thearchbishop—princehassixhighofficers，whoowehimhomagefortheirfiefs，andwhoattendathiscoronationandathisobsequies。AtMende，[21]thebishop，seignior—suzerainforGévaudansincetheeleventhcentury，appoints"thecourts，ordinaryjudgesandjudgesofappeal，thecommissariesandsyndicsofthecountry。"Hedisposesofalltheplaces，"municipalandjudiciary。"Entreatedtoappearintheassemblyofthethreeordersoftheprovince，he"repliesthathisplace，hispossessionsandhisrankexaltinghimaboveeveryindividualinhisdiocese。Hecannotsitunderthepresidencyofanyperson；that，beingseignior—suzerainofallestatesandparticularlyofthebaronies，hecannotgivewaytohisvassals。"

Inbriefthatheisking，orbutlittleshortofit，inhisownprovince。AtRemiremont，thenoblechapterofcanonesseshas，"inferior，superior，andordinaryjudicatureinfifty—twobansofseigniories，"nominatesseventy—fivecuraciesandconferstenmalecanonships。Itappointsthemunicipalofficersofthetown，and，besidesthese，threelowerandhighercourts，andeverywheretheofficialsinthejurisdictionoverwoodsandforests。Thirty—twobishops，withoutcountingthechapters，arethustemporalseigniors，inwholeorinpart，oftheirepiscopaltown，sometimesofthesurroundingdistrict，andsometimes，likethebishopofSt。Claude，oftheentirecountry。Herethefeudaltowerhasbeenpreserved。

Elsewhereitisplasteredoveranew，andmoreparticularlyintheappanages。Inthesedomains，comprisingmorethantwelveofourdepartments，theprincesofthebloodappointtoallofficesinthejudiciaryandtoallclericallivings。Beingsubstitutesofthekingtheyenjoyhisserviceableandhonoraryrights。Theyarealmostdelegatedkings，andforlife；fortheynotonlyreceiveallthatthekingwouldreceiveasseignior，butagainaportionofthatwhichhewouldreceiveasmonarch。Forexample，thehouseofOrleanscollectstheexcises，[22]thatistosaythedutyonliquors，onworksingoldorsilver，onmanufacturesofiron，onsteel，oncards，onpaperandstarch，inshort，ontheentiresum—totalofoneofthemostonerousindirecttaxes。Itisnotsurprising，if，havinganearlysovereignsituation，theyhaveacouncil，achancellor，anorganizeddebt，acourt，[23]adomesticceremonialsystem，andthatthefeudaledificeintheirhandsshouldputontheluxuriousandformaltrappingswhichithadassumedinthehandsoftheking。

Letusturntoitsinferiorpersonages，toaseigniorofmediumrank，onhissquareleagueofground，amidstthethousandinhabitantswhowereformerlyhisvilleinsorhisserfs，withinreachofthemonastery，orchapter，orbishopwhoserightsinterminglewithhisrights。Whatevermayhavebeendonetoabasehimhispositionisstillveryhigh。Heisyet，astheintendantssay，"thefirstinhabitant；"aprincewhomtheyhavehalfdespoiledofhispublicfunctionsandconsignedtohishonoraryandavailablerights，butwhoneverthelessremainsaprince。[24]——Hehashisbenchinthechurch，andhisrightofsepultureinthechoir；thetapestrybearshiscoatofarms；theybestowonhimincense，"holywaterbydistinction。"Often，havingfoundedthechurch，heisitspatron，choosingthecurateandclaimingtocontrolhim；intheruraldistrictsweseehimadvancingorretardingthehouroftheparochialmassaccordingtohisfancy。Ifhebearsatitleheissupremejudge，andthereareentireprovinces，MaineandAnjou，forexample，wherethereisnofiefwithoutthejudge。Inthiscaseheappointsthebailiff；theregistrar，andotherlegalandjudicialofficers，attorneys，notaries，seigniorialsergeants，constabularyonfootormounted，whodrawupdocumentsordecideinhisnameincivilandcriminalcasesonthefirsttrial。Heappoints，moreover，aforest—warden，ordecidesforestoffenses，andenforcesthepenalties，whichthisofficerinflicts。Hehashisprisonfordelinquentsofvariouskinds，andsometimeshisforkedgibbets。Ontheotherhand，ascompensationforhisjudicialcosts，heobtainsthepropertyofthemancondemnedtodeathandtheconfiscationofhisestate。Hesucceedstothebastardbornanddyinginhisseigniorywithoutleavingatestamentorlegitimatechildren。Heinheritsfromthepossessor，legitimatelyborn，dyingintestateinhishousewithoutapparentheirs。Heappropriatestohimselfmovableobjects，animateorinanimate，whicharefoundastrayandofwhichtheownerisunknown；heclaimsone—halforone—thirdoftreasure—trove，and，onthecoast，hetakesforhimselfthewaifofwrecks。Andfinally，whatismorefruitful，inthesetimesofmisery，hebecomesthepossessorofabandonedlandsthathaveremaineduntilledfortenyears。—Otheradvantagesdemonstratestillmoreclearlythatheformerlypossessedthegovernmentofthecanton。Suchare，inAuvergne，inFlanders，inHainaut，inArtois，inPicardy，Alsace，andLorraine，theduesdepoursoinoudesauvement（careorsafetywithinthewallsofatown），paidtohimforprovidinggeneralprotection。Theduesofdeguetetdegarde（watchandguard），claimedbyhimformilitaryprotection；ofafforage，areexactedofthosewhosellbeer，wineandotherbeverages，whole—saleorretail。Theduesoffouage，duesonfires，inmoneyorgrain，which，accordingtomanycommon—lawsystems，heleviesoneachfireside，houseorfamily。Theduesofpulvérage，quitecommoninDauphiny—andProvence，areleviedonpassingflocksofsheep。Thoseofthelodsetventes（lord’sdue），analmostuniversaltax，consistofthedeductionofasixth，oftenofafifthorevenafourth，ofthepriceofeverypieceofgroundsold，andofeveryleaseexceedingnineyears。Theduesforredemptionorreliefareequivalenttooneyear’sincome，aidthathereceivesfromcollateralheirs，andoftenfromdirectheirs。Finally，ararerdue，butthemostburdensomeofall，isthatofacapteoudeplaid—a—merci，whichisadoublerent，orayear’syieldoffruits，payableaswellonthedeathoftheseigniorasonthatofthecopyholder。Theseareveritabletaxes，onland，onmovables，personal，forlicenses，fortraffic，formutations，forsuccessions，establishedformerlyontheconditionofperformingapublicservicewhichheisnolongerobligedtoperform。

Otherduesarealsoancienttaxes，buthestillperformstheserviceforwhichtheyareaquittance。Theking，infact，suppressesmanyofthetolls，twelvehundredin1724，andthesuppressioniskeptup。Agoodmanystillremaintotheprofitoftheseignior，—onbridges，onhighways，onfords，onboatsascendingordescending，severalbeingverylucrative，oneofthemproducing90，000livres[25]。

Hepaysfortheexpenseofkeepingupbridge，road，fordandtowpath。

Inlikemanner，onconditionofmaintainingthemarket—placeandofprovidingscalesandweightsgratis，heleviesataxonprovisionsandonmerchandisebroughttohisfairortohismarket。—AtAngoulêmeaforty—eighthofthegrainsold，atCombourgnearSaint—Malo，somuchperheadofcattle，elsewheresomuchonwine，eatablesandfish[26]

Havingformerlybuilttheoven，thewinepress，themillandtheslaughterhouse，heobligestheinhabitantstousetheseorpayfortheirsupport，andhedemolishesallconstructions，whichmightenterintocompetitionwithhim[27]。These，again，areevidentlymonopoliesandoctroisgoingbacktothetimewhenhewasinpossessionofpublicauthority。

Notonlydidhethenpossessthepublicauthoritybutalsopossessedthesoilandthemenonit。Proprietorofmen，heissostill，atleastinmanyrespectsandinmanyprovinces。"InChampagneproper，intheSénonais，inlaMarche，intheBourbonnais，intheNivernais，inBurgundy，inFranche—Comté，therearenone，orveryfewdomains，nosignsremainingofancientservitude……Agoodmanypersonalserfs，orsoconstitutedthroughtheirowngratitude，orthatoftheirprogenitors，arestillfound。"[28]There，manisaserf，sometimesbyvirtueofhisbirth，andagainthroughaterritorialcondition。Whetherinservitude，orasmortmains，orascotters，onewayoranother，1，500，000individuals，itissaid，woreabouttheirnecksaremnantofthefeudalcollar；thisisnotsurprisingsince，ontheothersideoftheRhine，almostallthepeasantrystillwearit。

Theseignior，formerlymasterandproprietorofalltheirgoodsandchattelsandofalltheirlabor，canstillexactofthemfromtentotwelvecorvéesperannumandafixedannualtax。InthebaronyofChoiseulnearChaumontinChampagne，"theinhabitantsarerequiredtoplowhislands，tosowandreapthemforhisaccountandtoputtheproductsintohisbarns。Eachplotofground，eachhouse，everyheadofcattlepaysaquit—claim；childrenmayinheritfromtheirparentsonlyonconditionofremainingwiththem；ifabsentatthetimeoftheirdeceaseheistheinheritor。"Thisiswhatwasstyledinthelanguageofthedayanestate"withexcellentdues。"—Elsewheretheseigniorinheritsfromcollaterals，brothersornephews，iftheywerenotincommunitywiththedefunctatthemomentofhisdeath，whichcommunityisonlyvalidthroughhisconsent。IntheJuraandtheNivernais，hemaypursuefugitiveserfs，anddemand，attheirdeath，notonlythepropertyleftbythemonhisdomain，but，again，thepittanceacquiredbythemelsewhere。AtSaint—Claudeheacquiresthisrightoveranypersonthatpassesayearandadayinahousebelongingtotheseigniory。Astoownershipofthesoilweseestillmoreclearlythatheoncehadentirepossessionofit。Inthedistrictsubjecttohisjurisdictionthepublicdomainremainshisprivatedomain；roads，streetsandopensquaresformapartofit；hehastherighttoplanttreesinthemandtotaketreesup。Inmanyprovinces，throughapasturagerent，heobligestheinhabitantstopayforpermitstopasturetheircattleinthefieldsafterthecrop，andintheopencommonlands，（lesterresvainesetvagues）。Unnavigablestreamsbelongtohim，aswellasisletsandaccumulationsformedinthemandthefishthatarefoundinthem。Hehastherightofthechaseoverthewholeextentofhisjurisdiction，thisorthatcommonerbeingsometimescompelledtothrowopentohimhisparkenclosedbywalls。

Onemoretraitservestocompletethepicture。ThisheadoftheState，aproprietorofmanandofthesoil，wasoncearesidentcultivatoronhisownsmallfarmamidstothersofthesameclass，and，bythistitle，hereservedtohimselfcertainworkingprivilegeswhichhealwaysretained。Suchistherightofbanvin，stillwidelydiffused，consistingoftheprivilegeofsellinghisownwine，totheexclusionofallothers，duringthirtyorfortydaysaftergatheringthecrop。Suchis，inTouraine，therightofpréage，whichistherighttosendhishorses，cowsandoxen"tobrowseunderguardinhissubjects’meadows。"Suchis，finally，themonopolyofthegreatdove—

cot，fromwhichthousandsofpigeonsissuetofeedatalltimesandseasonsandonallgrounds，withoutanyonedaringtokillortakethem。Throughanothereffectofthesamequalificationheimposesquit—claimsonpropertyonwhichhehasformerlygivenperpetualleases，and，underthetermscens，censives（quit—rents），carpot（shareinwine），champart（shareingrain），agrier（acashcommissionongeneralproduce），terrageparciere（shareoffruits）。Allthesecollections，inmoneyorinkind，areasvariousasthelocalsituations，accidentsandtransactionscouldpossiblybe。IntheBourbonnaishehasone—quarterofthecrop；inBerrytwelvesheavesoutofahundred。Occasionallyhisdebtorortenantisacommunity:

onedeputyintheNationalAssemblyownedafiefoftwohundredcasksofwineonthreethousandpiecesofprivateproperty。[29]Besides，throughtheretraitcensuel（aspeciesofrightofredemption），hecan"retainforhisownaccountallpropertysoldontheconditionofremuneratingthepurchaser，butpreviouslydeductingforhisbenefitthelord’sdues（lodsandventes）。"Thereader，finally，musttakenotethatalltheserestrictionsonpropertyconstitute，fortheseignior，aprivilegedcreditaswellontheproductasonthepriceoftheground，and，forthecopyholders，anunprescriptive，indivisibleandirredeemabledebt。—Sucharethefeudal。Toformanideaofthemintheirtotalitywemustalwaysimaginethecount，bishoporabbotofthetenthcenturyassovereignandproprietorinhisowncanton。Theformwhichhumansocietythentakesgrowsoutoftheexigenciesofnearandconstantdangerwithaviewtolocaldefense。Bysubordinatingallintereststothenecessitiesofliving，insuchawayastoprotectthesoilbyfixingonthesoil，throughpropertyanditsenjoyment，atroopofbravemenundertheleadershipofabravechieftain。Thedangerhavingpassedawaythestructurebecamedilapidated。Forapecuniarycompensationtheseigniorsallowedtheeconomicalandtenaciouspeasanttopickoffitagoodmanystones。Throughconstrainttheysufferedthekingtoappropriatetohimselfthepublicportion。Theprimitivefoundationremains，propertyasorganizedinancienttimes，thefetteredorexhaustedlandsupportingasocialconformationthathasmeltedaway，inshort，anorderofprivilegesandofthralldomofwhichthecauseandthepurposehavedisappeared。[30]

V。Theymaybejustifiedbylocalandgeneralservices。