PrefacePrefaceINOWoffertothepublicanotherportionofthe

laboursdevolvedonmeintheexecutionofthedutiesoftheDaneProfessorship

ofLawinHarvardUniversity。Theimportanceofthesubjectwillhardlybe

doubledbyanypersons，whohavebeenaccustomedtodeepreflectionuponthe

natureandvalueoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates。Icanonlyregret，

thatithasnotfallenintoablerhands，withmoreleisuretoprepare，andmore

variousknowledgetobringtosuchatask。

Imperfect，however，astheseCommentariesmayseemtothose，whoare

accustomedtodemandaperfectfinishinallelementaryworks，theyhavebeen

attendedwithadegreeofuninvitinglabour，anddryresearch，ofwhichitis

scarcelypossibleforthegeneralreadertoformanyadequateestimate。Manyof

thematerialslaylooseandscattered；andweretobegatheredupamong

pamphletsanddiscussionsofatemporarycharacter；amongobscureprivateand

publicdocuments；andfromcollections，whichrequiredanexhaustingdiligence

tomastertheircontents，ortoselectfromunimportantmasses，afewfacts，or

asolitaryargument。Indeed，itrequirednosmalllabour，evenafterthese

sourceswereexplored，tobringtogethertheirregularfragments，andtoform

themintogroups，inwhichtheymightillustrateandsupporteachother。

Fromtwogreatsources，however，Ihavedrawnbyfarthegreatestpartofmy

mostvaluablematerials。Theseare，TheFederalist，anincomparablecommentary

ofthreeofthegreateststatesmenoftheirage；andtheextraordinary

JudgementsofMr。ChiefJusticeMarshalluponconstitutionallaw。Theformer

havediscussedthestructureandorganizationofthenationalgovernment，inall

itsdepartments，withadmirablefulnessandforce。Thelatterhasexpoundedthe

applicationandlimitsoritspowersandfunctionswithunrivalledprofoundness

andfelicity。TheFederalistcoulddolittlemore，thanstatetheobjectsand

generalbearingofthesepowersandfunctions。Themasterlyreasoningofthe

ChiefJusticehasfollowedthemouttotheirultimateresultsandboundaries，

withaprecisionandclearness，approaching，asnearasmaybe，tomathematical

demonstration。TheFederalist，beingwrittentomeetthemostprevalentpopular

objectionsatthetimeoftheadoptionoftheConstitution，hasnotattemptedto

pursueanyveryexactorderinitsreasonings；buthastakenupsubjectsinsuch

amanner，aswasbestadaptedatthetimetoovercomeprejudices，andwin

favour。Topics，therefore，havinganaturalconnexion，aresometimesseparated；

andillustrationsappropriatetoseveralimportantpoints，aresometimes

presentedinanincidentaldiscussion。Ihavetransferredintomyownpagesall，

whichseemedtobeofpermanentimportanceinthatgreatwork；andhavethereby

endeavouredtomakeitsmeritsmoregenerallyknown。

Thereadermustnotexpecttofindinthesepagesanynovelviews，andnovel

constructionsoftheConstitution。Ihavenottheambitiontobetheauthorof

anynewplanofinterpretingthetheoryoftheConstitution，orofenlargingor

narrowingitspowersbyingenioussubtletiesandlearneddoubts。Myobjectwill

besufficientlyattained，ifIshallhavesucceededinbringingbeforethe

readerthetrueviewofitspowersmaintainedbyitsfoundersandfriends，and

confirmedandillustratedbytheactualpracticeofthegovernment。The

expositionstobefoundintheworkarelesstoberegarded，asmyownopinions，

thanasthoseofthegreatminds，whichframedtheConstitution，orwhichhave

beenfromtimetotimecalledupontoadministerit。Unionsubjectsof

governmentithasalwaysappearedtome，thatmetaphysicalrefinementsareout

ofplace。Aconstitutionofgovernmentisaddressedtothecommonsenseofthe

people；andneverwasdesignedfortrialsoflogicalskill，orvisionary

speculation。

Thereaderwillsometimesfindthesametrainofreasoningbroughtbefore

himindifferentpartsoftheseCommentaries。

Itwasindispensabletodoso，unlessthediscussionwasleftimperfect，or

thereaderwasreferredbacktootherpages，togatherupandcombinedisjointed

portionsofreasoning。Incases，whichhaveundergonejudicialinvestigation，or

whichconcernthejudicialdepartment，Ihavefeltmyselfrestrictedtomore

narrowdiscussions，thanintherestofthework；andhavesometimescontented

myselfwithameretranscriptfromthejudgmentsofthecourt。Itmayreadilybe

understood，thatthiscoursehasbeenadoptedfromasolicitude，nottogo

incidentallybeyondthelinepointedoutbytheauthorities。

Indismissingthework，Icannotbutsolicittheindulgenceofthepublic

foritsomissionsanddeficiencies。Withmorecopiousmaterialsitmighthave

beenmademoreexact，aswellasmoresatisfactory。Withmoreleisureandmore

learningitmighthavebeenwroughtupmoreinthespiritofpolitical

philosophy。Suchasitis，itmaynotbewhollyuseless，asameansof

stimulatingablermindstoamorethoroughreviewofthewholesubject；andof

impressinguponAmericansareverentialattachmenttotheConstitution，asin

thehighestsensethepalladiumofAmericanliberty。

January，1833。JosephStory：CommentariesontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates：

DedicationDedicationTOTHE

HONORABLEJOHNMARSHALL，LL。D。，CHIEFJUSTICEOFTHEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA。

SIR，Iaskthefavourofdedicatingthisworktoyou。Iknownot，towhomit

couldwithsomuchproprietybededicated，astoone，whoseyouthwasengagedin

thearduousenterprisesoftheRevolution；whosemanhoodassistedinframingand

supportingthenationalConstitution；andwhosematureryearshavebeendevoted

tothetaskofunfoldingitspowers，andillustratingitsprinciples。When，

indeed，Ilookbackuponyourjudiciallaboursduringaperiodofthirty—two

years，itisdifficulttosuppressastonishmentattheirextentandvariety，and

attheexactlearning，theprofoundreasoning，andthesolidprinciples，which

theyeverywheredisplay。OtherJudgeshaveattainedanelevatedreputationby

similarlaboursinasingledepartmentofjurisprudence。Butinonedepartment，

(itneedsscarcelybesaid，thatIalludetothatofconstitutionallaw，)the

commonconsentofyourcountrymenhasadmittedyoutostandwithoutarival。

Posteritywillassuredlyconfirmbyitsdeliberateaward，whatthepresentage

hasapproved，asanactofundisputedjustice。Yourexpositionsof

constitutionallawenjoyarareandextraordinaryauthority。Theyconstitutea

monumentoffamefarbeyondtheordinarymemorialsofpoliticalandmilitary

glory。Theyaredestinedtoenlighten，instruct，andconvincefuture

generations；andcanscarcelyperishbutwiththememoryoftheconstitution

itself。Theyarethevictoriesofamindaccustomedtograpplewith

difficulties，capableofunfoldingthemostcomprehensivetruthswithmasculine

simplicity，andseverelogic，andprompttodissipatetheillusionsofingenious

doubt，andsubtleargument，andimpassionedeloquence。Theyremindusofsome

mightyriverofourowncountry，which，gatheringinitscoursethe

contributionsofmanytributarystreams，poursatlastitsowncurrentintothe

ocean，deep，clear，andirresistible。

ButIconfess，thatIdwellwithevenmorepleasureupontheentiretyofa

lifeadornedbyconsistentprinciples，andfilledupinthedischargeof

virtuousduty；wherethereisnothingtoregret，andnothingtoconceal；no

friendshipsbroken；noconfidencebetrayed；notimidsurrenderstopopular

clamour；noeagerreachesforpopularfavour。Whodoesnotlistenwithconscious

pridetothetruth，thatthedisciple，thefriend，thebiographerofWashington，

stilllives，theuncompromisingadvocateofhisprinciples？

Iambuttoosensible，thattosomemindsthetimemaynotseemyettohave

arrived，whenlanguage，likethis，howevertrue，shouldmeettheeyesorthe

public。Maytheperiodbeyetfardistant，whenpraiseshallspeakoutwiththat

fulnessofutterance，whichbelongstothesanctityofthegrave。

ButIknownot，thatinthecourseofprovidencetheprivilegewillbe

allowedmehereafter，todeclare，inanysuitableformmydeepsenseofthe

obligations，whichthejurisprudenceofmycountryowestoyourlabours，or

whichIhavebeenfortwenty—oneyearsawitness，andinsomehumblemeasurea

companion。Andifanyapologyshouldberequiredformypresentfreedom，mayI

notsay，thatatyourageallreservemaywellbespared，sinceallyourlabours

mustsoonbelongexclusivelytohistory？

Allowmetoadd，thatIhaveadesire(willitbedeemedpresumptuous？)to

recorduponthesepagesthememoryofafriendship，whichhasforsomanyyears

beentomeasourceofinexpressiblesatisfaction；andwhich，Iindulgethe

hope，maycontinuetoaccompanyandcheermetothecloseoflife。

Iamwiththehighestrespect，affectionatelyyourservant，JOSEPHSTORY。

Cambridge，January，1833。<P><center><h1>

CONSTITUTION</center>

<center>

OFTHE</center><center>

UNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA。

</center></h1></center><P>

WE，thepeopleoftheUnitedStates，inordertoformamoreperfect

union，establishjustice，ensuredomestictranquillity，provideforthe

commondefence，promotethegeneralwelfare，andsecuretheblessingsof

libertytoourselvesandourposterity，doordainandestablishthis

ConstitutionfortheUnitedStatesofAmerica。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEI。

<P>

SECTION1。

</center><P>

1。</B>Alllegislativepowershereingranted，shallbevestedinacongressof

theUnitedStates，whichshallconsistofasenateandhouseof

representatives。

<P><B><center>

SECTION2。

</center><P>

1。</B>Thehouseofrepresentativesshallbecomposedofmemberschosenevery

secondyearbythepeopleoftheseveralstates，andtheelectorsineach

stateshallhavethequalificationsrequisiteforelectorsofthemost

numerousbranchofthestatelegislature。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Nopersonshallbearepresentativewhoshallnothaveattainedtothe

ageoftwenty—fiveyears，andbeensevenyearsacitizenoftheUnited

States，andwhoshallnot，whenelected，beaninhabitantofthatstatein

whichheshallbechosen。

<P><B><center>

xviiiTHECONSTITUTION。

</center><P>

3。</B>Representativesanddirecttaxesshallbeapportionedamongtheseveral

stateswhichmaybeincludedwithinthisUnion，accordingtotheir

respectivenumbers，whichshallbedeterminedbyaddingtothewholenumber

offreepersons，includingthoseboundtoserviceforatermofyears，and

excludingIndiansnottaxed，three—fifthsofallotherpersons。Theactual

enumerationshallbemadewithinthreeyearsafterthefirstmeetingofthe

congressoftheUnitedStates，andwithineverysubsequenttermoften

years，insuchmannerastheyshallbylawdirect。Thenumberof

representativesshallnotexceedoneforeverythirtythousand，buteach

stateshallhaveatleastonerepresentative；anduntilsuchenumeration

shallbemade，thestateofNewHampshireshallbeentitledtochoose

three，Massachusettseight，RhodeIslandandProvidencePlantationsone，

Connecticutfive，NewYorksix，NewJerseyfour，Pennsylvaniaeight，

Delawareone，Marylandsix，Virginiaten，NorthCarolinafive，South

Carolinafive，andGeorgiathree。

<P>

<B>4。</B>Whenvacancieshappenintherepresentationfromanystate，the

executiveauthoritythereofshallissuewritsofelectiontofillsuch

vacancies。

<P>

<B>5。</B>Thehouseofrepresentativesshallchoosetheirspeakerandother

officers；andshallhavethesolepowerofimpeachment。

<P><B><center>

SECTION3。

</center><P>

<P>

1。</B>ThesenateoftheUnitedStatesshallbecomposedoftwosenatorsfrom

eachstate，chosenbythelegislaturethereof，forsixyears；andeach

senatorshallhaveonevote。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Immediatelyaftertheyshallbeassembledinconsequenceofthefirst

election，theyshallbedividedasequallyasmaybeintothreeclasses。

Theseatsofthesenatorsofthefirstclassshallbevacatedatthe

expirationofthesecondyear，ofthesecondclass，attheexpirationof

thefourthyear，andofthethirdclass，attheexpirationofthesixth

year，sothatone—thirdmaybechoseneverysecondyear；andifvacancies

happenbyresignation，orotherwise，duringtherecessofthelegislature

<P><B><center>

THECONSTITUTION。xix

</center></B><P>

ofanystate，theexecutivethereofmaymaketemporaryappointmentsuntil

thenextmeetingofthelegislature，whichshallthenfillsuchvacancies。

<P>

<B>3。</B>Nopersonshallbeasenatorwhoshallnothaveattainedtotheageof

thirtyyears，andbeennineyearsacitizenortheUnitedStates，andwho

shallnot，whenelected，beaninhabitantofthatstateforwhichheshall

bechosen。

<P>

<B>4。</B>Thevice—presidentoftheUnitedStatesshallbepresidentofthe

senate，butshallhavenovote，unlesstheybeequallydivided。

<P>

<B>5。</B>Thesenateshallchoosetheirotherofficers，andalsoapresidentpro

temporeintheabsenceofthevicepresident，orwhenheshallexercisethe

officeofpresidentoftheUnitedStates。

<P>

<B>6。</B>Thesenateshallhavethesolepowertotryallimpeachments。When

sittingforthatpurpose，theyshallbeonoathoraffirmation。Whenthe

presidentoftheUnitedStatesistried，thechiefjusticeshallpreside；

andnopersonshallbeconvictedwithouttheconcurrenceoftwo—thirdsof

thememberspresent。

<P>

<B>7。</B>Judgmentincasesofimpeachmentshallnotextendfurtherthanto

removalfromoffice，anddisqualificationtoholdandenjoyanyofficeof

honour，trust，orprofit，undertheUnitedStates；butthepartyconvicted

shallneverthelessbeliableandsubjecttoindictment，trial，judgment，

andpunishment，accordingtolaw。

<P><B><center>

SECTION4。

</center><P>

1。</B>Thetimes，places，andmannerofholdingelectionsforsenatorsand

representatives，shallbeprescribedineachstatebythelegislature

thereof：butthecongressmayatanytimebylaw，makeoraltersuch

regulations，exceptastotheplacesofchoosingsenators。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Thecongressshallassembleatleastonceineveryyear，andsuch

meetingshallbeonthefirstMondayinDecember，unlesstheyshallbylaw

appointadifferentday。

<P><B><center>

xxTHECONSTITUTION。</B>

<P><B>

SECTION5。

</center></B>

<P>

<B>1。</B>Eachhouseshallbethejudgeoftheelections，returns，and

qualificationsofitsownmembers，andamajorityofeachshallconstitute

aquorumtodobusiness；butasmallernumbermayadjournfromdaytoday，

andmaybeauthorizedtocompeltheattendanceofabsentmembers，insuch

manner，andundersuchpenaltiesaseachhousemayprovide。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Eachhousemaydeterminetherulesofitsproceedings，punishits

membersfordisorderlybehaviour，and，withtheconcurrenceoftwo—thirds，

expelamember。

<P>

<B>3。</B>Eachhouseshallkeepajournalofitsproceedings，andfromtimeto

timepublishthesame，exceptingsuchpartsasmay，intheirjudgment，

requiresecrecy；andtheyeasandnaysofthemembersofeitherhouseon

anyquestion，shall，atthedesireofone—fifthofthosepresent，be

enteredontheJournal。

<P>

<B>4。</B>Neitherhouse，duringthesessionofcongress，shall，withoutthe

consentoftheother，adjournformorethanthreedays，nortoanyother

placethanthatinwhichthetwohousesshallbesitting。

<P><B><center>

SECTION6。

</center><P>

1。</B>Thesenatorsandrepresentativesshallreceiveacompensationfortheir

services，tobeascertainedbylaw，andpaidoutofthetreasuryofthe

UnitedStates。Theyshall，inallcases，excepttreason，felony，andbreach

ofthepeace，beprivilegedfromarrestduringtheirattendanceatthe

sessionoftheirrespectivehouses，andingoingto，andreturningfrom，

thesame；andforanyspeechordebateineitherhouse，theyshallnotbe

questionedinanyotherplace。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Nosenatororrepresentativeshall，duringthetimeforwhichhewas

elected，beappointedtoanycivilofficeundertheauthorityoftheUnited

States，whichshallhavebeencreated，ortheemolumentswhereofshallhave

beenincreasedduringsuchtime；andnopersonholdinganyofficeunderthe

UnitedStates，shallbeamemberofeitherhouseduringhiscontinuancein

office。

<P><B><center>

THECONSTITUTION。xxi

<P>

SECTION7。

</center><P>

1。</B>Allbillsforraisingrevenueshalloriginateinthehouseof

representatives；butthesenatemayproposeorconcurwithamendmentsason

otherbills。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Everybillwhichshallhavepassedthehouseofrepresentativesandthe

senate，shall，beforeitbecomealaw，bepresentedtothepresidentofthe

UnitedStates；ifheapproveheshallsignit，butifnotheshallreturn

it，withhisobjections，tothathouseinwhichitshallhaveoriginated，

whoshallentertheobjectionsatlargeontheirjournal，andproceedto

reconsiderit。Ifaftersuchreconsiderationtwo—thirdsofthathouseshall

agreetopassthebill，itshallbesent，togetherwiththeobjections，to

theotherhouse，bywhichitshalllikewisebereconsidered，andif

approvedbytwo—thirdsofthathouse，itshallbecomealaw。Butinall

suchcasesthevotesofbothhousesshallbedeterminedbyyeasandnays，

andthenamesofthepersonsvotingforandagainstthebillshallbe

enteredonthejournalofeachhouserespectively。Ifanybillshallnotbe

returnedbythepresidentwithintendays，(Sundaysexcepted，)afterit

shallhavebeenpresentedtohim，thesameshallbealaw，inlikemanner

asifhehadsignedit，unlessthecongressbytheiradjournmentprevent

itsreturn，inwhichcaseitshallnotbealaw。

<P>

<B>3。</B>Everyorder，resolution，orvote，towhichtheconcurrenceofthe

senateandhouseofrepresentativesmaybenecessary，(exceptonaquestion

ofadjournment，)shallbepresentedtothepresidentoftheUnitedStates；

andbeforethesameshalltakeeffect，shallbeapprovedbyhim，orbeing

disapprovedbyhim，shallbere—passedbytwo—thirdsofthesenateand

houseofrepresentatives，accordingtotherulesandlimitationsprescribed

inthecaseofabill。

<P><B><center>

SECTION8。

</center></B><P>

Thecongressshallhavepower

<P>

<B>1。</B>Tolayandcollecttaxes，duties，imposts，andexcises，topaythe

debtsandprovideforthecommondefenceandgen—

<P><B><center>

xxiiTHECONSTITUTION。

</center></B><P>

eralwelfareoftheUnitedStates；butallduties，imposts，andexcises，

shallbeuniformthroughouttheUnitedStates：

<P>

<B>2。</B>ToborrowmoneyonthecreditoftheUnitedStates：

<P>

<B>3。</B>Toregulatecommercewithforeignnations，andamongtheseveral

states，andwiththeIndiantribes：

<P>

<B>4。</B>Toestablishanuniformruleofnaturalization，anduniformlawsonthe

subjectofbankruptciesthroughouttheUnitedStates：

<P>

<B>5。</B>Tocoinmoney，regulatethevaluethereof，andofforeigncoin，andfix

thestandardofweightsandmeasures：

<P>

<B>6。</B>Toprovideforthepunishmentofcounterfeitingthesecuritiesand

currentcoinoftheUnitedStates：

<P>

<B>7。</B>Toestablishpost—officesandpost—roads：

<P>

<B>8。</B>Topromotetheprogressofscienceandusefularts，bysecuring，for

limitedtimes，toauthorsandinventorstheexclusiverighttotheir

respectivewritingsanddiscoveries：

<P>

<B>9。</B>ToconstitutetribunalsinferiortotheSupremeCourt：

<P>

<B>10。</B>Todefineandpunishpiracies，andfelonies，committedonthehigh

seas，andoffencesagainstthelawofnations：

<P>

<B>11。</B>Todeclarewar，grantlettersofmarqueandreprisal，andmakerules

concerningcapturesonlandandwater：

<P>

<B>12。</B>Toraiseandsupportarmies，butnoappropriationofmoneytothatuse

shallbeforalongertermthantwoyears：

<P>

<B>13。</B>Toprovideandmaintainanavy：

<P>

<B>14。</B>Tomakerulesforthegovernmentandregulationofthelandandnaval

forces：

<P>

<B>15。</B>Toprovideforcallingforththemilitiatoexecutethelawsofthe

Union，suppressinsurrections，andrepelinvasions：

<P>

<B>16。</B>Toprovidefororganizing，arminganddiscipliningthemilitia，and

forgoverningsuchpartofthemasmaybeemployedintheserviceofthe

UnitedStates，reservingtothestatesrespectively，theappointmentofthe

officers，andtheauthorityoftrainingthemilitiaaccordingtothe

disciplineprescribedbycongress：

<P>

<B>17。</B>Toexerciseexclusivelegislationinallcaseswhatsoever，oversuch

district(notexceedingtenmilessquare)asmay，bycessionofparticular

states，andacceptanceofcongress，

<P><B><center>

THECONSTITUTION。xxiii

</center></B><P>

becometheseatofthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates，andtoexercise

likeauthorityoverallplacespurchasedbytheconsentofthelegislature

ofthestateinwhichthesameshallbe，fortheerectionofforts，

magazines，arsenals，dock—yards，andotherneedfulbuildings：——And

<P>

<B>18。</B>Tomakealllawswhichshallbenecessaryandproperforcarryinginto

executiontheforegoingpowers，andallotherpowersvestedbythis

ConstitutioninthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates，orinanydepartment

orofficerthereof。

<P><B><center>

SECTION9。

</center><P>

1。</B>Themigrationorimportationofsuchpersons，asanyofthestatesnow

existingshallthinkpropertoadmit，shallnotbeprohibitedbythe

congresspriortotheyearonethousandeighthundredandeight，butatax

ordutymaybeimposedonsuchimportation，notexceedingtendollarsfor

eachperson。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Theprivilegeofthewritofhabeascorpusshallnotbesuspended，

unlesswhenincasesofrebellionorinvasionthepublicsafetymayrequire

it。

<P>

<B>3。</B>Nobillofattainderorexpostfactolawshallbepassed。

<P>

<B>4。</B>Nocapitation，orotherdirecttaxshallbelaid，unlessinproportion

tothecensusorenumerationhereinbeforedirectedtobetaken。

<P>

<B>5。</B>Notaxordutyshallbelaidonarticlesexportedfromanystate。No

preferenceshallbegivenbyanyregulationofcommerceorrevenuetothe

portsofonestateoverthoseofanother；norshallvesselsboundto，or

from，onestate，beobligedtoenter，clear，orpayduties，inanother。

<P>

<B>6。</B>Nomoneyshallbedrawnfromthetreasury，butinconsequenceof

appropriationsmadebylaw；andaregularstatementandaccountofthe

receiptsandexpendituresofallpublicmoneyshallbepublishedfromtime

totime。

<P>

<B>7。</B>NotitleofnobilityshallbegrantedbytheUnitedStates：

Andnopersonholdinganyofficeofprofitortrustunderthem，shall，

withouttheconsentofthecongress，acceptofanypresent，emolument，

office，ortitleofanykindwhateverfromanyking，prince，orforeign

state。

<P><B><center>

xxviTHECONSTITUTION。

<P>

SECTION10。

</center><P>

1。</B>Nostateshallenterintoanytreaty，alliance，orconfederation；grant

lettersofmarqueandreprisal；coinmoney；emitbillsofcredit；makeany

thingbutgoldandsilvercoinatenderinpaymentofdebts；passanybill

ofattainder，expostfactolaw，orlawimpairingtheobligationof

contracts，orgrantanytitleofnobility。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Nostateshall，withouttheconsentofthecongress，layanyimpostsor

dutiesonimportsorexports，exceptwhatmaybeabsolutelynecessaryfor

executingitsinspectionlaws；andthenetproduceofalldutiesand

imposts，laidbyanystateonimportsorexports，shallbefortheuseof

thetreasuryoftheUnitedStates；andallsuchlawsshallbesubjectto

therevisionandcontrolofthecongress。Nostateshall，withoutthe

consentofcongress，layanydutyoftonnage，keeptroops，orshipsofwar，

intimeofpeace，enterintoanyagreementorcompactwithanotherstate，

orwithaforeignpower，orengageinwar，unlessactuallyinvaded，orin

suchimminentdangeraswillnotadmitofdelay。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEII。

<P>

SECTION1。

</center><P>

l。</B>TheexecutivepowershallbevestedinapresidentoftheUnitedStates

ofAmerica。Heshallholdhisofficeduringthetermoffouryears，and

togetherwiththevice—president，chosenforthesameterm，beelectedas

follows：

<P>

<B>2。</B>Eachstateshallappoint，insuchmannerasthelegislaturethereofmay

direct，anumberofelectorsequaltothewholenumberofsenatorsand

representativestowhichthestatemaybeentitledinthecongress：butno

senatororrepresentative，orpersonholdinganofficeoftrustorprofit

undertheUnitedStates，shallbeappointedanelector。

<P>

<B>3。</B>Theelectorsshallmeetintheirrespectivestates，andvotebyballot

fortwopersons，ofwhomoneatleastshallnotbeaninhabitantofthe

samestatewiththemselves。Andtheyshallmakealistofallthepersons

votedfor，andofthenumberofvotesforeach；whichlisttheyshallsign

andcertify，

<P><B><center>

THECONSTITUTION。xxv

</center></B><P>

andtransmit，sealed，totheseatofthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates，

directedtothepresidentofthesenate。Thepresidentofthesenateshall，

inthepresenceofthesenateandhouseofrepresentatives，openallthe

certificates，andthevotesshallthenbecounted。Thepersonhavingthe

greatestnumberofvotesshallbethepresident，ifsuchnumberbea

majorityofthewholenumberofelectorsappointed；andiftherebemore

thanonewhohavesuchmajority，andhaveanequalnumberofvotes，then

thehouseofrepresentativesshallimmediatelychoosebyballotoneofthem

forpresident；andifnopersonhaveamajority，then，fromthefive

highestonthelistthesaidhouseshallinlikemannerchoosethe

president。Butinchoosingthepresidentthevotesshallbetakenby

states，therepresentationfromeachstatehavingonevote；aquorumfor

thispurposeshallconsistofamemberormembersfromtwo—thirdsofthe

states，andamajorityofallthestatesshallbenecessarytoachoice。In

everycase，afterthechoiceofthepresident，thepersonhavingthe

greatestnumberofvotesoftheelectorsshallbethevice—president。But

ifthereshouldremaintwoormorewhohaveequalvotes，thesenateshall

choosefromthembyballotthevice—president。

<P>

<B>4。</B>Thecongressmaydeterminethetimeofchoosingtheelectors，andthe

dayonwhichtheyshallgivetheirvotes；whichdayshallbethesame

throughouttheUnitedStates。

<P>

<B>5。</B>Nopersonexceptanaturalborncitizen，oracitizenoftheUnited

States，atthetimeoftheadoptionofthisConstitution，shallbeeligible

totheofficeofpresident；neithershallanypersonbeeligibletothat

officewhoshallnothaveattainedtotheageofthirty—fiveyears，and

beenfourteenyearsaresidentwithintheUnitedStates。

<P>

<B>6。</B>Incaseoftheremovalofthepresidentfromoffice，orofhisdeath，

resignation，orinabilitytodischargethepowersanddutiesofthesaid

office，thesameshalldevolveonthevice—president，andthecongressmay

bylawprovideforthecaseofremoval，death，resignation，orinability，

bothofthepresidentandvice—president，declaringwhatofficershallthen

actaspres—

<P><B><center>

xxviTHECONSTITUTION。

</center></B><P>

ident，andsuchofficershallactaccordingly，untilthedisabilitybe

removed，orapresidentshallbeelected。

<P>

<B>7。</B>Thepresidentshall，atstatedtimes，receiveforhisservices，a

compensation，whichshallneitherbeincreasednordiminishedduringthe

periodforwhichheshallhavebeenelected，andheshallnotreceive

withinthatperiodanyotheremolumentfromtheUnitedStatesoranyof

them。

<P>

<B>8。</B>Beforeheenterontheexecutionofhisoffice，heshalltakethe

followingoathoraffirmation：

<P>

<B>9。</B>"Idosolemnlyswear，(oraffirm，)thatIwillfaithfully"execute

theofficeofpresidentoftheUnitedStates，andwill，"tothebestofmy

ability，preserve，protect，anddefendthe"ConstitutionoftheUnited

States。"

<P><B><center>

SECTION2。

</center><P>

l。</B>Thepresidentshallbecommander—in—chiefofthearmyandnavyofthe

UnitedStates，andofthemilitiaoftheseveralstates，whencalledinto

theactualserviceoftheUnitedStates；hemayrequiretheopinion，in

writing，oftheprincipalofficerineachoftheexecutivedepartments，

uponanysubjectrelatingtothedutiesoftheirrespectiveoffices，andhe

shallhavepowertograntreprievesandpardonsforoffencesagainstthe

UnitedStates，exceptincasesofimpeachment。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Heshallhavepowerbyandwiththeadviceandconsentofthesenate，

tomaketreaties，providedtwo—thirdsofthesenatorspresentconcur；and

heshallnominate，andbyandwiththeadviceandconsentofthesenate，

shallappointambassadors，otherpublicministersandconsuls，judgesof

thesupremecourt，andallotherofficersoftheUnitedStates，whose

appointmentsarenothereinotherwiseprovidedfor，andwhichshallbe

establishedbylaw：butthecongressmaybylawvesttheappointmentof

suchinferiorofficers，astheythinkproper，inthepresidentalone，in

thecourtsoflaw，orintheheadsofdepartments。

<P>

<B>3。</B>Thepresidentshallhavepowertofillupallvacanciesthatmayhappen

duringtherecessofthesenate，bygrantingcommissions，whichshall

expireattheendoftheirnextsession。

<P><B><center>

THECONSTITUTION。xxvii

<P>

SECTION3。

</center><P>

1。</B>Heshallfromtimetotimegivetothecongressinformationorthe

stateoftheUnion，andrecommendtotheirconsiderationsuchmeasuresas

heshalljudgenecessaryandexpedient；hemay，onextraordinaryoccasions，

convenebothhouses，oreitherofthem，andincaseofdisagreementbetween

themwithrespecttothetimeofadjournment，hemayadjournthemtosuch

timeasheshallthinkproper；heshallreceiveambassadorsandother

publicministers；heshalltakecarethatthelawsbefaithfullyexecuted，

andshallcommissionalltheofficersoftheUnitedStates。

<P><B>

SECTION4。

<P>

1。</B>Thepresident，vice—president，andallcivilofficersoftheUnited

Statesshallberemovedfromofficeonimpeachmentfor，andconvictionof，

treason，bribery，orotherhighcrimesandmisdemeanors。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEIll。

<P>

SECTION1。

</center><P>

l。</B>ThejudicialpoweroftheUnitedStates，shallbevestedinone

SupremeCourt，andinsuchinferiorcourtsasthecongressmayfromtimeto

timeordainandestablish。Thejudges，bothofthesupremeandinferior

courts，shallholdtheirofficesduringgoodbehaviour，andshall，at

statedtimes，receivefortheirservices，acompensation，whichshallnot

bediminishedduringtheircontinuanceinoffice。

<P><B><center>

SECTION2。

</center><P>

1。</B>Thejudicialpowershallextendtoallcases，inlawandequity，

arisingunderthisConstitution，thelawsoftheUnitedStates，and

treatiesmade，orwhichshallbemade，undertheirauthority；toallcases

affectingambassadors，otherpublicministersandconsuls；toallcasesof

admiraltyandmaritimejurisdiction；tocontroversiestowhichtheUnited

Statesshallbeaparty；tocontroversiesbetweentwoormorestates，

between

<P><B><center>

xxviiiTHECONSTITUTION。

</center></B>

<P>

astateandcitizensofanotherstate，betweencitizensofdifferent

states，betweencitizensofthesamestateclaiminglandsundergrantsof

differentstates，andbetweenastate，orthecitizensthereof，andforeign

states，citizens，orsubjects。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Inallcasesaffectingambassadors，otherpublicministersand

consuls，andthoseinwhichastateshallbeaparty，thesupremecourt

shallhaveoriginaljurisdiction。Inalltheothercasesbeforementioned，

thesupremecourtshallhaveappellatejurisdiction，bothastolawand

fact，withsuchexceptions，andundersuchregulationsasthecongress

shallmake。

<P>

<B>3。</B>Thetrialofallcrimes，exceptincasesofimpeachment，shallbeby

jury；andsuchtrialshallbeheldinthestatewherethesaidcrimesshall

havebeencommitted；butwhennotcommittedwithinanystate，thetrial

shallbeatsuchplaceorplacesasthecongressmaybylawhavedirected。

<P><B><center>

SECTION3。

</center><P>

1。</B>TreasonagainsttheUnitedStates，shallconsistonlyinlevyingwar

againstthem，orinadheringtotheirenemies，givingthemaidandcomfort。

Nopersonshallbeconvictedoftreasonunlessonthetestimonyoftwo

witnessestothesameovertact，oronconfessioninopencourt。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Thecongressshallhavepowertodeclarethepunishmentoftreason，

butnoattainderoftreasonshallworkcorruptionofblood，orforfeiture，

exceptduringthelifeofthepersonattainted。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEIV。

<P>

SECTION1。

</center><P>

1。</B>Fullfaithandcreditshallbegivenineachstatetothepublicacts，

records，andjudicialproceedingsofeveryotherstate。Andthecongress

maybygenerallawsprescribethemannerinwhichsuchacts，records，and

proceedingsshallbeproved，andtheeffectthereof。

<P><B><center>

SECTION2。

</center><P>

1。</B>Thecitizensofeachstateshallbeentitledtoallprivilegesand

immunitiesofcitizensintheseveralstates。

<P><B><center>

THECONSTITUTION。xxix

</center><P>

2。</B>Apersonchargedinanystatewithtreason，felony，orothercrime，

whoshallfleefromjustice，andbefoundinanotherstate，shall，on

demandoftheexecutiveauthorityofthestatefromwhichhefled，be

deliveredup，toberemovedtothestatehavingjurisdictionofthecrime。

<P>

<B>3。</B>Nopersonheldtoserviceorlabourinonestate，underthelaws

thereof，escapingintoanother，shall，inconsequenceofanylawor

regulationtherein，bedischargedfromsuchserviceorlabour，butshallbe

delivereduponclaimofthepartytowhomsuchserviceorlabourmaybe

due。

<P><B><center>

SECTION3。

</center><P>

1。</B>NewstatesmaybeadmittedbythecongressintothisUnion；butnonew

stateshallbeformedorerectedwithinthejurisdictionofanyother

state；noranystatebeformedbythejunctionoftwoormorestates，or

partsofstates，withouttheconsentofthelegislaturesofthestates

concerned，aswellasofthecongress。

<P>

<B>2。</B>Thecongressshallhavepowertodisposeofandmakeallneedfulrules

andregulationsrespectingtheterritoryorotherpropertybelongingtothe

UnitedStates；andnothinginthisConstitutionshallbesoconstruedasto

prejudiceanyclaimsoftheUnitedStates，orofanyparticularstate。

<P><B><center>

SECTION4。

</center><P>

1。</B>TheUnitedStatesshallguaranteetoeverystateinthisUniona

republicanformofgovernment，andshallprotecteachofthemagainst

invasion；andonapplicationofthelegislature，oroftheexecutive，(when

thelegislaturecannotbeconvened，)againstdomesticviolence。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEV。

</center><P>

1。</B>Thecongress，whenevertwo—thirdsofbothhousesshalldeemit

necessary，shallproposeamendmentstothisConstitution，or，onthe

applicationofthelegislaturesoftwo—thirdsortheseveralstates，shall

callaconventionforproposingamendments，which，ineithercase，shallbe

validtoallintentsand

<P><B><center>

xxxTHECONSTITUTION。

</center></B>

<P>

purposes，aspartofthisConstitution，whenratifiedbythelegislatures

ofthree—fourthsoftheseveralstatesorbyconventionsinthree—fourths

thereof，astheoneortheothermodeofratificationmaybeproposedby

thecongress：Provided，thatnoamendment，whichmaybemadepriortothe

yearonethousandeighthundredandeight，shallinanymanneraffectthe

firstandfourthclausesintheninthsectionofthefirstarticle；and

thatnostate，withoutitsconsent，shallbedeprivedofitsequalsuffrage

inthesenate。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEVI。

</center><P>

1。</B>Alldebtscontractedandengagementsenteredinto，beforetheadoption

ofthisConstitution，shallbeasvalidagainsttheUnitedStatesunder

thisConstitution，asundertheconfederation。

<P>

<B>2。</B>ThisConstitution，andthelawsoftheUnitedStateswhichshallbe

madeinpursuancethereof；andalltreatiesmade，orwhichshallbemade，

undertheauthorityoftheUnitedStates，shallbethesupremelawofthe

land；andthejudgesineverystateshallbeboundthereby，anythinsin

theconstitutionorlawsofanystatetothecontrarynotwithstanding。

<P>

<B>3。</B>Thesenatorsandrepresentativesbeforementioned，andthemembersof

theseveralstatelegislatures，andallexecutiveandjudicialofficers，

bothoftheUnitedStatesandoftheseveralstatesshallbebound，byoath

oraffirmation，tosupportthisConstitution；butnoreligioustestshall

everberequiredasaqualificationtoanyofficeorpublictrustunderthe

UnitedStates。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEVII。

</center><P>

1。</B>Theratificationoftheconventionsofninestates，shallbe

sufficientfortheestablishmentofthisConstitutionbetweenthestatesso

ratifyingthesame。

<P><B><center>

THECONSTITUTION。xxxi

<P>

AMENDMENTSTOTHECONSTITUTION。

<P>

ARTICLEI。

</center></B><P>

Congressshallmakenolawrespectinganestablishmentofreligion，or

prohibitingthefreeexercisethereof；orabridgingthefreedomofspeech，

orofthepress；ortherightofthepeoplepeaceablytoassemble，andto

petitionthegovernmentforaredressofgrievances。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEII。

</center></B><P>

Awellregulatedmilitiabeingnecessarytothesecurityofafreestate，

therightofthepeopletokeepandbeararmsshallnotbeinfringed。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEIII。

</center></B><P>

Nosoldiershall，intimeofpeace，bequarteredinanyhousewithoutthe

consentoftheowner；norintimeofwar，butinamannertobeprescribed

bylaw。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEIV。

</center></B><P>

Therightofthepeopletobesecureintheirpersons，houses，papers，and

effectsagainstunreasonablesearchesandseizures，shallnotbeviolated；

andnowarrantsshallissue，butuponprobablecause，supportedbyoathor

affirmation，andparticularlydescribingtheplacetobesearched，andthe

personsorthingstobeseized。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEV。

</center></B><P>

Nopersonshallbeheldtoanswerforacapitalorotherwiseinfamous

crime，unlessonapresentmentorindictmentofagrandjury，exceptin

casesarisinginthelandornavalforces，orinthemilitia，whenin

actualservice，intimeofwarorpublicdanger；norshallanypersonbe

subjectforthesameoffencetobetwiceputinjeopardyoflifeorlimb；

norshall

<P><B><center>

xxxiiTHECONSTITUTION。

</center></B><P>

becompelled，inanycriminalcase，tobeawitnessagainsthimself，notbe

deprivedoflife，liberty，orproperty，withoutdueprocessoflaw；nor

shallprivatepropertybetakenforpublicusewithoutjustcompensation。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEVI。

</center></B><P>

Inallcriminalprosecutions，theaccusedshallenjoytherighttoa

speedyandpublictrial，byanimpartialjuryofthestateanddistrict

whereinthecrimeshallhavebeencommitted，whichdistrictshallhavebeen

previouslyascertainedbylaw；andtobeinformedofthenatureandcause

oftheaccusation；tobeconfrontedwiththewitnessesagainsthim；tohave

compulsoryprocessforobtainingwitnessesinhisfavour；andtohavethe

assistanceofcounselforhisdefence。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEVII。

</center></B><P>

Insuits—atcommonlaw，wherethevalueincontroversyshallexceedtwenty

dollars，therightoftrialbyjuryshallbepreserved；andnofacttried

byajuryshallbeotherwisereexaminedinanycourtoftheUnitedStates，

thanaccordingtotherulesofthecommonlaw。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEVIII。

</center></B><P>

Excessivebailshallnotberequired，norexcessivefinesimposed，nor

cruelandunusualpunishmentsinflicted。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEIX。

</center></B><P>

TheenumerationintheConstitutionofcertainrights，shallnotbe

construedtodenyordisparageothersretainedbythepeople。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEX。

</center></B><P>

ThepowersnotdelegatedtotheUnitedStatesbytheConstitution，nor

prohibitedbyittothestates，arereservedtothestatesrespectively，or

tothepeople。

<P><B><center>

THECONSTITUTION。xxxiii

<P>

ARTICLEXI。

</center></B><P>

ThejudicialpoweroftheUnitedStatesshallnotbeconstruedtoextend

toanysuitinlaworequity，commencedorprosecutedagainstoneofthe

UnitedStatesbycitizensofanotherstate，orbycitizensorsubjectsof

anyforeignstate。

<P><B><center>

ARTICLEXII。

</center><P>

l。</B>Theelectorsshallmeetintheirrespectivestates，andvotebyballot

forpresidentandvice—president，oneofwhom，atleast，shallnotbean

inhabitantofthesamestatewiththemselves；theyshallnameintheir

ballotsthepersonvotedforaspresident，andindistinctballotsthe

personvotedforasvice—president；andtheyshallmakedistinctlistsof

allpersonsvotedforaspresident，andofallpersonsvotedforas

vicepresident，andofthenumberofvotesforeach，whichliststheyshall

signandcertify，andtransmitsealedtotheseatofthegovernmentofthe

UnitedStates，directedtothepresidentofthesenate；thepresidentof

thesenateshall，inthepresenceofthesenateandhouseof

representatives，openallthecertificates，andthevotesshallthenbe

counted：thepersonhavingthegreatestnumberofvotesforpresident，

shallbethepresident，ifsuchnumberbeamajorityofthewholenumberof

electorsappointed；andifnopersonhavesuchmajority，thenfromthe

personshavingthehighestnumbers，notexceedingthree，onthelistof

thosevotedforaspresident，thehouseofrepresentativesshallchoose

immediately，byballot，thepresident。Butinchoosingthepresident，the

votesshallbetakenbystates，therepresentationfromeachstatehaving

onevote；aquorumforthispurposeshallconsistofamemberormembers

fromtwo—thirdsofthestates，andamajorityofallthestatesshallbe

necessarytoachoice。Andifthehouseofrepresentativesshallnot

chooseapresidentwhenevertherightofchoiceshalldevolveuponthem，

beforethefourthdayofMarchnextfollowing，thenthevice—president

shallactaspresident，asinthecaseofthedeathorotherconstitutional

disabilityofthepresident。

<P><B><center>

xxxivTHECONSTITUTION。

</center><P>

2。</B>Thepersonhavingthegreatestnumberofvotesasvicepresident，shall

bethevice—president，ifsuchnumberbeamajorityofthewholenumberof

electorsappointed；andifnopersonhaveamajority，thenfromthetwo

highestnumbersonthelist，thesenateshallchoosethevice—president：a

quorumforthepurposeshallconsistoftwo—thirdsofthewholenumberof

senators，amajorityofthewholenumbershallbenecessarytoachoice。

<P>

<B>3。</B>Butnopersonconstitutionallyineligibletotheofficeofpresident，

shallbeeligibletothatofvice—presidentoftheUnitedStates。

<P>

<P>

<P>

<P>PRELIMINARYCHAPTERPLANOFTHEWORK

TheprincipalobjectoftheseCommentariesistopresentafullanalysisandexpositionoftheConstitutionofGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica。Inordertodothiswithclearnessandaccuracy，itisnecessarytounderstand，whatwasthepoliticalpositionoftheseveralStates，composingtheUnion，inrelationtoeachotheratthetimeofitsadoption。ThiswillnaturallyconductusbacktotheAmericanRevolution；andtotheformationoftheConfederationconsequentthereon。Butifwestophere，weshallstillbesurroundedwithmanydifficultiesinregardtoourdomesticinstitutionsandpolicy，whichhavegrownoutoftransactionsofamuchearlierdate，connectedononesidewiththecommondependenceofalltheColoniesupontheBritishEmpire，andontheotherwiththeparticularchartersofgovernmentandinternallegislation，whichbelongedtoeachColony，asadistinctsovereignty，andwhichhaveimpresseduponeachpeculiarhabits，opinions，attachments，andevenprejudices。TracesofthesepeculiaritiesareeverywherediscernibleintheactualjurisprudenceofeachState；andaresilentlyoropenlyreferredtoinseveraloftheprovisionsoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates。Inshort，withoutacarefulreviewoftheoriginandconstitutionalandjuridicalhistoryofallthecolonies，oftheprinciplescommontoall，andofthediversities，whichwerenolessremarkableinall，itwouldbeimpossiblefullytounderstandthenatureandobjectsoftheConstitution；thereasonsonwhichseveralofitsmostimportantprovisionsarefounded；andthenecessityofthoseconcessionsandcompromises，whichadesiretoformasolidandperpetualUnionhasincorporatedintoitsleadingfeatures。

Theplanoftheworkwill，therefore，naturallycomprehendthreegreatdivisions。Thefirstwillembraceasketchofthecharters，constitutionalhistory，andante—revolutionaryjurisprudenceoftheColonies。ThesecondwillembraceasketchoftheconstitutionalhistoryoftheStatesduringtheRevolution，andtherise，progress，decline，andfalloftheConfederation。

ThethirdwillembracethehistoryoftheriseandadoptionoftheConstitution；

andafullexpositionofallitsprovisions，withthereasons，onwhichtheywererespectivelyfounded，theobjections，bywhichtheywererespectivelyassailed，andsuchillustrationsdrawnfromcontemporaneousdocuments，andthesubsequentoperationsofthegovernment，asmaybestenablethereadertoestimateforhimselfthetruevalueofeach。Inthisway(asitishoped)hisjudgmentaswellashisaffectionswillbeenlistedonthesideoftheConstitution，asthetruestsecurityoftheUnion，andtheonlysolidbasis，onwhichtoresttheprivaterights，thepublicliberties，andthesubstantialprosperityofthepeoplecomposingtheAmericanRepublic。

JosephStory：CommentariesontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates：

Book1Chapter1BOOKI。HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。____________________CHAPTERI。ORIGINOFTHETITLETOTERRITORYOFTHECOLONIES。&sect；1。THEdiscoveryoftheContinentofAmericabyColumbusinthefifteenthcenturyawakenedtheattentionofallthemaritimeStatesofEurope。Stimulatedbytheloveofglory，andstillmorebythehopeofgainanddominion，manyofthemearlyembarkedinadventurousenterprises，theobjectofwhichwastofoundcolonies，ortosearchforthepreciousmetals，ortoexchangetheproductsandmanufacturesoftheoldworldforwhateverwasmostvaluableandattractiveinthenew。1Englandwasnotbehindhercontinentalneighboursinseekingherownaggrandizement，andnourishinghertheninfantcommerce。2TheambitionofHenrytheSeventhwasrousedbythecommunicationsofColumbus，andin1495hegrantedacommissiontoJohnCabot，anenterprisingVenetian，thensettledinEngland，toproceedonavoyageofdiscovery，andtosubdueandtakepossessionofanylandsunoccupiedbyanyChristianPower，inthenameandforthebenefitoftheBritishCrown。3InthesucceedingyearCabotsailedonhisvoyage，andhavingfirstdiscoveredtheIslandsofNewfoundlandandSt。Johns，heafterwardssailedalongthecoastofthecontinentfromthe56thtothe38thdegreeofnorthlatitude；

andclaimedforhissovereignthevastregion，whichstretchesfromtheGulfofMexicotothemostnorthernregions。4

&sect；2。SuchistheoriginoftheBritishtitletotheterritorycomposingtheseUnitedStates。Thattitlewasfoundedontherightofdiscovery，aright，whichwasheldamongtheEuropeannationsajustandsufficientfoundation，onwhichtoresttheirrespectiveclaimstotheAmericancontinent。Whatevercontroversiesexistedamongthem(andtheywerenumerous)respectingtheextentoftheirownacquisitionsabroad，theyappealedtothisastheultimatefact，bywhichtheirvariousandconflictingclaimsweretobeadjusted。Itmaynotbeeasyupongeneralreasoningtoestablishthedoctrine，thatpriorityofdiscoveryconfersanyexclusiverighttoterritory。ItwasprobablyadoptedbytheEuropeannationsasaconvenientandflexiblerule，bywhichtoregulatetheirrespectiveclaims。Foritwasobvious，thatinthemutualcontestsfordominioninnewlydiscoveredlands，therewouldsoonariseviolentandsanguinarystrugglesforexclusivepossession，unlesssomecommonprincipleshouldberecognizedbyallmaritimenationsforthebenefitofall。Nonemorereadilysuggesteditselfthantheonenowunderconsideration；andasitwasaprincipleofpeaceandrepose，ofperfectequalityorbenefitinproportiontotheactualorsupposedexpendituresandhazardsattendantuponsuchenterprises，itreceivedauniversalAcquiescence，ifnotareadyapprobation。ItbecamethebasisofEuropeanpolity，andregulatedtheexerciseoftherightsofsovereigntyandsettlementinallthecis—AtlanticPlantations。5Inrespecttodesertanduninhabitedlands，theredoesnotseemanyimportantobjection，whichcanbeurgedagainstit。Butinrespecttocountries，theninhabitedbythenatives，itisnoteasytoperceive，how，inpointofjustice，orhumanity，orgeneralconformitytothelawofnature，itcanbesuccessfullyvindicated。Asaconventionalruleitmightproperlygovernallthenations，whichrecognizeditsobligation；butitcouldhavenoauthorityovertheaboriginesofAmerica，whethergatheredintocivilizedcommunities，orscatteredinhuntingtribesoverthewilderness。Theirright，whateveritwas，ofoccupationoruse，stooduponoriginalprinciplesdeduciblefromthelawofnature，andcouldnotbejustlynarrowedorextinguishedwithouttheirownfreeconsent。

&sect；3。Thereisnodoubt，thattheIndiantribes，inhabitingthiscontinentatthetimeofitsdiscovery，maintainedaclaimtotheexclusivepossessionandoccupancyoftheterritorywithintheirrespectivelimits，assovereignsandabsoluteproprietorsofthesoil。Theyacknowledgednoobedience，orallegiance，orsubordinationtoanyforeignsovereignwhatsoever；andasfarastheyhavepossessedthemeans，theyhaveeversinceassertedthisplenaryrightofdominion，andyieldedituponlywhenlostbythesuperiorforceofconquest，ortransferredbyavoluntarycession。

&sect；4。Thisisnottheplacetoenteruponthediscussionofthequestionoftheactualmeritsofthetitlesclaimedbytherespectivepartiesuponprinciplesofnaturallaw。Thatwouldinvolvetheconsiderationofmanyniceanddelicatetopics，astothenatureandoriginofpropertyinthesoil，andtheextent，towhichcivilizedmanmaydemanditfromthesavageforusesorcultivationdifferentfrom，andperhapsmorebeneficialtosocietythantheuses，towhichthelattermaychoosetoappropriateit。Suchtopicsbelongmoreproperlytoatreatiseonnaturallaw，thantolecturesprofessingtotreatuponthelawofasinglenation。

&sect；5。TheEuropeannationsfoundlittledifficultyinreconcilingthemselvestotheadoptionofanyprinciple，whichgaveamplescopetotheirambition，andemployedlittlereasoningtosupportit。Theywerecontenttotakecounseloftheirinterests，theirprejudices，andtheirpassions，andfeltnonecessityofvindicatingtheirconductbeforecabinets，whichwerealreadyeagertorecogniseitsjusticeanditspolicy。TheIndianswereasavagerace，sunkinthedepthsofignoranceandheathenism。Iftheymightnotbeextirpatedfortheirwantofreligionandjustmorals，theymightbereclaimedfromtheirerrors。TheywereboundtoyieldtothesuperiorgeniusofEurope，andinexchangingtheirwildanddebasinghabitsforcivilizationandChristianitytheyweredeemedtogainmorethananequivalentforeverysacrificeandsuffering。6ThePapalauthority，too，wasbroughtinaidofthesegreatdesigns；andforthepurposeofoverthrowingheathenism，andpropagatingtheCatholicreligion，7AlexandertheSixth，byaBullissuedin1493，grantedtothecrownofCastilethewholeoftheimmenseterritorythendiscovered，ortobediscovered，betweenthepoles，sofarasitwasnotthenpossessedbyanyChristianprince。8

&sect；6。Theprinciple，then，thatdiscoverygavetitletothegovernment，bywhosesubjectsorbywhoseauthorityitwasmade，againstallotherEuropeangovernments，beingonceestablished，itfollowedalmostasamatterofcourse，thateverygovernmentwithinthelimitsofitsdiscoveriesexcludedallotherpersonsfromanyrighttoacquirethesoilbyanygrantwhatsoeverfromthenatives。Nonationwouldsuffereitheritsownsubjectsorthoseofanyothernationtosetuporvindicateanysuchtitle。9ItwasdeemedarightexclusivelybelongingtothegovernmentinitssovereigncapacitytoextinguishtheIndiantitle，andtoperfectitsowndominionoverthesoil，anddisposeofitaccordingtoitsowngoodpleasure。

&sect；7。Itmaybeasked，whatwastheeffectofthisprincipleofdiscoveryinrespecttotherightsofthenativesthemselves。IntheviewoftheEuropeansitcreatedapeculiarrelationbetweenthemselvesandtheaboriginalinhabitants。Thelatterwereadmittedtopossessapresentrightofoccupancy，oruseinthesoil，whichwassubordinatetotheultimatedominionofthediscoverer。Theywereadmittedtobetherightfuloccupantsofthesoil，withalegalaswellasjustclaimtoretainpossessionofit，andtouseitaccordingtotheirowndiscretion。Inacertainsensetheywerepermittedtoexerciserightsofsovereigntyoverit。Theymightsellortransferittothesovereign，whodiscoveredit；buttheyweredeniedtheauthoritytodisposeofittoanyotherpersons；anduntilsuchasaleortransfer，theyweregenerallypermittedtooccupyitassovereignsdefacto。Butnotwithstandingthisoccupancy，theEuropeandiscoverersclaimedandexercisedtherighttograntthesoil，whileyetinpossessionofthenatives，subjecthowevertotheirrightofoccupancy；andthetitlesograntedwasuniversallyadmittedtoconveyasufficienttitleinthesoiltothegranteesinperfectdominion，or，asitissometimesexpressedintreatisesofpubliclaw，itwasatransferofplenumetutiledominium。

&sect；8。ThissubjectwasdiscussedatgreatlengthinthecelebratedcaseofJohnsonv。McIntosh，(8Wheat。

543)；andonecannotdobetterthantranscribefromthepagesofthatreportasummaryofthehistoricalconfirmationsadducedinsupportoftheseprinciples，whichismoreclearandexactthanhaseverbeenbeforeinprint。

&sect；9。"ThehistoryofAmerica，(saysMr。

ChiefJusticeMarshall，indeliveringtheopinionoftheCourt，)10fromitsdiscoverytothepresentday，proves，wethink，theuniversalrecognitionoftheseprinciples。"SpaindidnotresthertitlesolelyonthegrantofthePope。Herdiscussionsrespectingboundary，withFrance，withGreatBritain，andwiththeUnitedStates，allshow，thatsheplaceditontherightsgivenbydiscovery。PortugalsustainedherclaimtotheBrazilsbythesametitle。

&sect；10。"France，also，foundedhertitletothevastterritoriessheclaimedinAmericaondiscovery。Howeverconciliatoryherconducttothenativesmayhavebeen，shestillassertedherrightofdominionoveragreatextentofcountrynotactuallysettledbyFrenchmen，andherexclusiverighttoacquireanddisposeofthesoil，whichremainedintheoccupationofIndians。HermonarchclaimedallCanadaandAcadie，ascoloniesofFrance，atatimewhentheFrenchpopulationwasveryinconsiderable，andtheIndiansoccupiedalmostthewholecountry。HealsoclaimedLouisiana，comprehendingtheimmenseterritorieswateredbytheMississippi，andtherivers，whichemptyintoit，bythetitleofdiscovery。TheletterspatentgrantedtotheSieurDemonts，in1603，constitutehimLieutenantGeneral，andtherepresentativeoftheKinginAcadie，whichisdescribedasstretchingfromthe40thtothe46thdegreeofnorthlatitude，withauthoritytoextendthepoweroftheFrenchoverthatcountry，anditsinhabitants，togivelawstothepeople，totreatwiththenatives，andenforcetheobservanceoftreaties，andtoparcelout，andgivetitletolands，accordingtohisownjudgment。

&sect；11。"TheStatesofHollandalsomadeacquisitionsinAmerica，andsustainedtheirrightonthecommonprincipleadoptedbyallEurope。Theyallege，aswearetoldbySmith，inhisHistoryofNew—York，thatHenryHudson，whosailed，astheysay，undertheordersoftheirEastIndiaCompany，discoveredthecountryfromtheDelawaretotheHudson，upwhichhesailedtothe43ddegreeofnorthlatitude；andthiscountrytheyclaimedunderthetitleacquiredbythisvoyage。Theirfirstobjectwascommercial，asappearsbyagrantmadetoacompanyofmerchantsin1614；butin1621，theStatesGeneralmade，aswearetoldbyMr。Smith，agrantofthecountrytotheWestIndiaCompany，bythenameofNewNetherlands。TheclaimoftheDutchwasalwayscontestedbytheEnglish；not，becausetheyquestionedthetitlegivenbydiscovery，butbecausetheyinsistedonbeingthemselvestherightfulclaimantsunderthattitle。Theirpretensionswerefinallydecidedbythesword。

&sect；12。"NooneofthepowersofEuropegaveitsfullassenttothisprinciple，moreunequivocallythanEngland。

Thedocumentsuponthissubjectareampleandcomplete。Soearlyastheyear1496，hermonarchgrantedacommissiontotheCabots，todiscovercountriesthenunknowntoChristianpeople，andtotakepossessionoftheminthenameofthekingofEngland。Twoyearsafterwards，Cabotproceededonthisvoyage，anddiscoveredthecontinentofNorthAmerica，alongwhichhesailedasfarsouthasVirginia。TothisdiscoverytheEnglishtracetheirtitle。InthisfirsteffortmadebytheEnglishgovernmenttoacquireterritoryonthiscontinent，weperceiveacompleterecognitionoftheprinciple，whichhasbeenmentioned。Therightofdiscoverygivenbythiscommissionisconfinedtocountries’thenunknowntoallChristianpeople；’

andofthesecountriesCabotwasempoweredtotakepossessioninthenameofthekingofEngland。Thusassertingarighttotakepossession，notwithstandingtheoccupancyofthenatives，whowereheathens，and，atthesametime，admittingthepriortitleofanyChristianpeople，whomayhavemadeapreviousdiscovery。

&sect；13。"Thesameprinciplecontinuedtoberecognized。ThechartergrantedtoSirHumphreyGilbert，in1578，authorizeshimtodiscoverandtakepossessionofsuchremote，heathen，andbarbarouslands，aswerenotactuallypossessedbyanyChristianprinceorpeople。

ThischarterwasafterwardsrenewedtoSirWalterRaleigh，innearlythesameterms。

&sect；14。"Bythecharterof1606，underwhichthefirstpermanentEnglishsettlementonthiscontinentwasmade，JamestheFirstgrantedtoSirThomasGatesandothers，thoseterritoriesinAmericalyingontheseacoastbetweenthe34thand45thdegreesofnorthlatitude，andwhicheitherbelongedtothatmonarch，orwerenotthenpossessedbyanyotherChristianprinceorpeople。Thegranteesweredividedintotwocompaniesattheirownrequest。Thefirst，orsoutherncolony，wasdirectedtosettlebetweenthe34thand41stdegreesofnorthlatitude；

andthesecond，ornortherncolony，betweenthe38thand45thdegrees。

&sect；15。"In1609，aftersomeexpensiveandnotverysuccessfulattemptsatsettlementhadbeenmade，anewandmoreenlargedcharterwasgivenbythecrowntothefirstcolony，inwhichthekinggrantedtothe’TreasurerandCompanyofAdventurersofthecityofLondonforthefirstcolonyinVirginia，’inabsoluteproperty，thelandsextendingalongthesea—coastfourhundredmiles，andintothelandthroughoutfromseatosea。Thischarter，whichisapartofthespecialverdictinthiscause，wasannulled，sofarasrespectedtherightsofthecompany，bythejudgmentoftheCourtofKing’sBenchonawritofquowarranto；butthewholeeffectallowedtothisjudgmentwas，torevestinthecrownthepowersofgovernment，andthetitletothelandswithinitslimits。

&sect；16。"Attheassociationofthosewhoheldunderthegranttothesecondornortherncolony，anewandmoreenlargedcharterwasgrantedtotheDukeofLenoxandothers，in1620，whoweredenominatedthePlymouthCompany，conveyingtotheminabsolutepropertyallthelandsbetweenthe40thand48thdegreesofnorthlatitude。Underthispatent，New—Englandhasbeeninagreatmeasuresettled。ThecompanyconveyedtoHenryRosewellandothers，in1627，thatterritorywhichisnowMassachusetts；and，in1628，acharterofincorporation，comprehendingthepowersofgovernment，wasgrantedtothepurchasers。AgreatpartofNew—Englandwasgrantedbythiscompany，which，atlength，dividedtheirremaininglandsamongthemselves；and，in1635，surrenderedtheirchartertothecrown。ApatentwasgrantedtoGorgesforMaine，whichwasallottedtohiminthedivisionofproperty。AllthegrantsmadebythePlymouthCompany，sofaraswecanlearn，havebeenrespected。

&sect；17。"Inpursuanceofthesameprinciple，theking，in1664，grantedtotheDukeofYorkthecountryofNew—EnglandasfarsouthastheDelawarebay。HisroyalhighnesstransferredNew—JerseytoLordBerkeleyandSirGeorgeCarteret。

&sect；18。"In1663，thecrowngrantedtoLordClarendonandothers，thecountrylyingbetweenthe36thdegreeofnorthlatitudeandtheriverSt。Mathes；and，in1666，theproprietorsobtainedfromthecrownanewcharter，grantingtothemthatprovinceintheking’sdominionsinNorthAmerica，whichliesfrom36degrees30minutesnorthlatitudetothe29thdegree，andfromtheAtlanticoceantotheSouthsea。

&sect；19。"ThushasourwholecountrybeengrantedbythecrownwhileintheoccupationoftheIndians。Thesegrantspurporttoconveythesoil，aswellastherightofdominiontothegrantees。

Inthosegovernments，whichweredenominatedroyal，weretherighttothesoilwasnotvestedinindividuals，butremainedinthecrown，orwasvestedinthecolonialgovernment，thekingclaimedandexercisedtherightofgranting，lands，andofdismemberingthegovernmentathiswill。Thegrantsmadeoutofthetwooriginalcolonies，aftertheresumptionoftheirchartersbythecrown，areexamplesofthis。ThegovernmentsofNew—England，New—York，New—Jersey，Pennsylvania，Maryland，andapartofCarolina，werethuscreated。

Inallofthem，thesoil，atthetimethegrantsweremade，wasoccupiedbytheIndians。Yetalmosteverytitlewithinthosegovernmentsisdependentonthesegrants。Insomeinstances，thesoilwasconveyedbythecrownunaccompaniedbythepowersofgovernment，asinthecaseofthenorthernneckofVirginia。Ithasneverbeenobjectedtothis，ortoanyothersimilargrant，thatthetitleaswellaspossessionwasintheIndianswhenitwasmade，andthatitpassednothingonthataccount。

&sect；20。"Thesevariouspatentscannotbeconsideredasnullities；norcantheybelimitedtoameregrantofthepowersofgovernment。Acharter，intendedtoconveypoliticalpoweronly，wouldnevercontainwordsexpresslygranting，theland，thesoil，andthewaters。Someofthempurporttoconveythesoilalone；andinthosecases，inwhichthepowersofgovernment，aswellasthesoil，areconveyedtoindividuals，thecrownhasalwaysacknowledgeditselftobeboundbythegrant。Thoughthepowertodismemberregalgovernmentswasassertedandexercised，thepowertodismemberproprietarygovernmentswasnotclaimed。

And，insomeinstances，evenafterthepowersofgovernmentwererevestedinthecrown，thetitleoftheproprietorstothesoilwasrespected。

&sect；21。"CharlestheSecondwasextremelyanxioustoacquirethepropertyofMaine，butthegranteessoldittoMassachusetts，andhedidnotventuretocontesttherightofthecolonytothesoil。

TheCarolinaswereoriginallyproprietarygovernments；In1721arevolutionwaseffectedbythepeople，whoshookofftheirobediencetotheproprietors，anddeclaredtheirdependenceimmediatelyonthecrown。Theking，however，purchasedthetitleofthose，whoweredisposedtosell。Oneofthem，LordCarteret，surrenderedhisinterestinthegovernment，butretainedhistitletothesoil。Thattitlewasrespectedtilltherevolution，whenitwasforfeitedbythelawsofwar。

&sect；22。"Furtherproofsoftheextent，towhichthisprinciplehasbeenrecognized，willbefoundinthehistoryofthewars，negotiations，andtreaties，whichthedifferentnations，claimingterritoryinAmerica，havecarriedon，andheldwitheachother。ThecontestsbetweenthecabinetsofVersaillesandMadrid，respectingtheterritoryonthenortherncoastofthegulfofMexico，werefierceandbloody；andcontinued，untiltheestablishmentofaBourbononthethroneofSpain，producedsuchamicabledispositionsinthetwocrowns，astosuspendorterminatethem。BetweenFranceandGreatBritain，whosediscoveries，aswellassettlements，werenearlycontemporaneous，contestsforthecountry，actuallycoveredbytheIndians，beganassoonastheirsettlementsapproachedeachother，andwerecontinueduntilfinallysettledintheyear1763，bythetreatyofParis。