I。ChildhoodWhenJamesMilldied，thespiritofhisfollowerswasenteringuponanewphase。Acertainchillwascreepingovertheconfidenceofpreviousyears。TheReformBillhadbeenhailedasinauguratinganewera；theUtilitariansthoughtthattheyhadmadeasolidlodgmentinthefortress，andlookedforwardstocompleteoccupation。Theworldwasgoingtheirway；theirdoctrinesweretriumphing；andifthosewhoacceptedtheirconclusionsclaimedthecreditoforiginatingthemovement，thetruefaithwasadvancing。Triumphbyotherhandsshouldbeasufficientrewardforpreacherswhopreferredsolidsuccesstopersonalglory。Opinionslongregardedwithhorrormightnowbeopenlyavowed，andmightbeexpectedtospreadwhentheincubusoftheoldrepressivesystemwasremoved。Theposition，tocomparesmallthingswithgreat，resembledthatinwhichProtestantismseemedtobedefinitelytriumphingoverthePapacy；

and，asinthatcase，thelatentstrengthoftheoldorderwasasyetunderestimated。Thepartywhichhadbeensohopefulwhenboundtogetherbyexternalpressureseemedtoloseitsenergyatthemomentofitsgreatesttriumph；itsdisciplesbecamelanguid；

itscherishedplanswererejectedoremasculated；andmanyofthelittlebandofenthusiastsabandonedormateriallymodifiedtheirdoctrine。Thechange，indeed，meantthatmanyoftheprinciplesforwhichtheycontendedhadwongeneralacceptance；but，forthatreason，theyhadnolongeracommonwarcry。TheconsequencesareillustratedinthecareerofJohnStuartMill，whosucceededtotheleadershipofthesect。Incertainrespects，asweshallsee，Mill’sgreataimwastosoftenandqualifytheteachingofhispredecessors。Atthesametimeheadhered，evenmorestrictlythanhewashimselfconsciousofadhering，totheirfundamentaltenets；andasaphilosopherhegainedinthelateryearsofhislifeafarwiderauthoritythanhadeverbeenexercisedbyhispredecessors。TheearlydisciplesofBenthamandofJamesMillwerefew，andfeltevenpainfullytheirisolation。

ButinhislateryearsJohnStuartMillhademerged。HehadbecomethemostprominentofEnglishthinkers；thepoliticalliberalsreferredtohimasthesoundestexpounderoftheirprinciples；andevenintheEnglishuniversities，thestrongholdsinhisyouthofallancientprejudices，hehadprobablymorefollowersthananyotherteacher。InthefollowingchaptersI

musttracethehistoryoftheintellectualchange。IbeginbyconsideringMill’spersonalhistory。Nocompletebiographyhasappeared，norweretheexternaleventsofhiscareerofspecialinterest。Mill，however，leftanautobiographywhichwasintendedtosupplywhatisofmostimportanceforus，thehistoryofhisintellectualandmoraldevelopment。Inthatrespectthebookiseminentlydeservingofstudy。Imustindicatewhatappeartometobethemostimportantoftheinfluencestheredescribed。

JohnStuartMill，born20thMay1806，wastwenty-sixatthedeathofBenthamandthirtyatthedeathofhisfather。Hewasthereforeoldenoughtobedeeplyaffectedbytheirpersonalinfluence；andhisprecocityhadmadetherelationtohiseldersfarmoreintimatethanisoftenpossible。JamesMillandBenthamlookeduponhimfromearlyyearsastheirspiritualheir。In1812

hisfatherwritestoBentham：(2*)’ShouldIdie，’saysJamesMill，’onethoughtthatwouldpinchmemostsorely’wouldbeleavingthepoorboy’s’mindunmade。’Therefore，’Itakeyourofferquiteseriously’——anofferapparentlytobeJohn’sguardian——’andthenwemayperhapsleavehimasuccessorworthyofbothofus。’Johnlivedtillhismanhoodalmostexclusivelyintheirlittlecircle；andnochildwasevermoreelaboratelyandstrenuouslyindoctrinatedwiththeviewsofasect。HadJamesMilladheredtohisearlycreedhissonwouldprobablyhavebecomeafitsubjectforoneofthoseedifyingtractswhichdealwithinfantileconversions。Fromtheearliestdawnofintellectuntiltheageoffourteenhewasthesubjectofoneofthemostsingulareducationalexperimentsonrecord。

HegivesinhisAutobiographyanaccountofhiscourseofstudy。(3*)HismemorydidnotgobacktothetimeatwhichhebeganGreek；buthewastoldthathewasthenthreeyearsold。Byhiseighthyear(1814)hehadreadallHerodotus，Xenophon’sCyrop鎑iaandMemorabilia，partofLucian，andsixdialoguesofPlato，includingtheThe鎡etus，which，he，venturestothink，’

mighthavebeenbetteromitted，asit，wastotallyimpossiblethathecouldunderstandit。’InthenextthreeyearshehadreadHomer，Thucydides，partsoftheplaysofSophocles，Euripides，andAristophanes，Demosthenes，苨chines。andLysias，Theocritus，Anacreon，andtheAnthology，and(in1817)Aristotle’sRhetoric，thefirst，scientifictreatiseonanymoralorpsychologicalsubject，whichhecarefullyanalysedandtabulated。HedidnotbeginLatintillhiseighthyear，whenhereadCorneliusNeposandC鎠ar’sCommentaries。ByhistwelfthyearhehadreadmuchofVirgil，Horace，Livy，Sallust，Ovid’sMetamorphoses，Terence，Lucretius，andagreatdealofCicero。Hehadlearnedalittlearithmeticbyhiseighthyear，andhadafterwardsgoneontoconicactionsandtrigonometry，andhadbegunthedifferentialcalculus。Hisfather’signoranceofthehighermathematicslefthimtostrugglebyhimselfwiththedifficultiesofhislaterstudies；buthewasfarinadvanceofmostboysofhisage。Heread，too，somebooksupontheexperimentalsciences，especiallychemistry，buthadnoopportunityofseeingactualexperiments。

InEnglishhehadreadhistories，makingnotes，anddiscussingtheresultswithhisfatherinmorningwalksthroughthegreenlanesnearHornsey。HehadreadHume，Robertson，andGibbon；

Watson’sPhilipIIandIII，whichparticularlycharmedhimbytheaccountsoftherevoltsintheNetherlands；Rollin’sAncientHistory，Hooke’sHistoryofRome，Langhorne’sPlutarch，Burnet’sOwnTime，theAnnualRegister，andMillar’sEnglishGovernment，besidesMosheim，M’Crie’sKnox，andSewell’sQuakers。Hisfatherliked，hesays，toputintohishandsbooksillustrativeofthestrugglesofenergeticmen。HereadAnsonandothervoyagesforthispurpose。Inapurelyimaginativedirectionhewasallowedmorescantyfare。Hewas，however，devotedtoRobinsonCrusoe，readtheArabianNightsanddonQuixote，MissEdgeworth，andBrooke’sFoolofQuality；admiredjoannaBaillie’splays，andwasfascinatedbyPope’sHomer。HewasattractedbyScott’slays，andsomeofCampbell’slyrics，butcaredlittleforShakespeare，andcouldmakenothingofSpenser’sFaeryQueen。HeattemptedlittleLatinandnoGreekcomposition；buthewroteafewchildish’histories，’andalittleEnglishverse。Inpurelyliterarytraininghewashardlyabovetheaverageofcleverboys。Thisgiveshisintellectualstateattheageoftwelve。Duringhisthirteenthandfourteenthyearshewasinitiatedinphilosophicalstudies。Hecontinuedtoreadclassicalliterature，butwasnowexpectedtounderstandthethoughtaswellasthewords。HebeganlogicbyreadingAristotle，someofthescholastictreatises，andespeciallyHobbes’sComputatiosiveLogica。Hisfatherlecturedhimupontheutilityofthesyllogism。HemadeacarefulstudyofDemosthenes，Tacitus，Juvenal，andQuintilian，andthenadvancedtoPlato。ToPlato，asheconsidered，heowedanespecialdebt，beinggreatlyimpressedbythelogicalmethod，thoughcaringlittleforthemoremysticalorpoeticaldoctrinescongenialtothosewhoaregenerallycalledPlatonists。HisfacultieswerealsostimulatedbyhelpinghisfatherintheproofsoftheHistoryofIndia，withwhomalsointheyear1819he’wentthroughacompletecourseofpoliticaleconomy，’firstreducingtowritinghisfather’soralexpositions，andthencarefullyreadingRicardoandAdamSmith。

This，hesays，endedwhatcouldproperlybecalledhislessons。Thewholenarrativeiscuriouslycharacteristicoffatherandson。Noonecouldhavedevotedhimselfmoreunreservedlytotheeducationofason。Whileworkinghardforthesupportofhimselfandhisfamily，JamesMillsparednotroubletodoalsothewholeworkofaschoolmaster。Theboypreparedhislessonsintheroominwhichthefatherwaswriting，andwasconstantlyinterruptinghimforhelp。Thefathersubmitted，butunfortunatelycouldnotsubmitgood-humouredly。Hewas’themostimpatientofmen，’andthemostrigorousofmartinets。Hedidnot，itseems，employthebirch，butfoundanequivalentinsarcasticreproaches。Hewasangrywhenhispupilfailedtounderstandhimforwant——notofindustrybut——ofknowledge，andguardedagainstcherishingconceitbyhumiliatinglanguage。WhenJohnwastoleavethefamily，thefatherthoughtitnecessarytoexplainthathewouldfindhimselftohavelearnedmorethanotherlads。But，hesaid，youarenottobeproudofit；foritwouldbethedeepestdisgraceifyouhadnotprofitedbytheunusualadvantageofafatherwillingandabletoteachyou。Education，likeotherthings，wasevidentlyamatterofsanctions；andtheonesanctionuponwhichtheteacherreliedwasthedreadofhisdisapproval。Thechildwasdriven，ratherthanattractedbysympatheticencouragement。JohnMillhadalsototeachhisyoungerbrothersandsisters，bothatthisandtillamuchlaterperiod。Millrecordshisconvictionthattheirplan(suggestedprobablybytheLancasteriansystem，inwhichthefatherwassomuchinterested)wasbothinefficientandabadmoraldisciplineforteacherandtaught。WhenPlacewenttovisitBenthamandtheMillsatFordAbbeyin1814，hefoundthesystematwork。Thechildrenwereregularlykeptattheirlessonsfromsixtonine，andfromtentoone。Theirdinnerhadbeendelayedonedaytillsix，becausethegirlshadmistakenaword，andJohn，theirteacher，hadnotdetectedthemistake。PlacethinksthatJohnisa’prodigy，’butfearsthathewillgrowup’moroseandselfish。’(4*)Thatanticipationwashappilynotverified。Thehealthoftheotherchildren，however，appearstohavesuffered；

and，althoughJohnspeakswiththewarmestappreciationofhisfather’scharacter，itisevidentthathefeltmorerespectthanfilialaffection，andthat，inspiteofcloseintellectualintercourse，therewasawantofsuchpersonalconfidenceasgivesacharmtotherelationinhappiercases。IfIcannotsaythatI，likehisyoungerchildren，’lovedhimtenderly，’saysJohn，’Iwasalwaysloyallydevotedtohim。’(5*)Thatloyaltyisshownunmistakablybyeveryreference，andthereferencesareveryfrequent，thatMillmadetohisfatherinhiswritings。

Mill’sownestimateoftheresultofhiseducationisnoteworthy。

Theexperimentproves，hesays，thepossibilityofinstillingintoachildanamountofknowledgesuchasisrarelyacquiredbeforemanhood。Hewas，heconsiders，ratherbelowthanaboveparinquicknessofapprehension，retentivenessofmemory，andenergyofcharacter。Whathedid，therefore，couldbedonebyanychildofaveragehealthandcapacity。Hislaterachievements，hethinks，wereduetothefactthat，amongotherfavourablecircumstances，hisfather’straininghadgivenhimthestartofhiscontemporariesby’aquarterofacentury。’(6*)Hisopinionisprobablycolouredbyhistendencytosetdownalldifferencesbetweenmenasduetoexternalcircumstances。Heandhisfather，asProfessorBainnotes，inclinedtothedoctrineofHelv閠iusthatchildrenallstartalike。(7*)Mill，bythosewhodissentfromthisview，willprobablybeheldtohavebeenendowedbynaturewithanextraordinarypowerofacquiringandassimilatingknowledge，andpresumablyhadfrominfancywhateverintellectualqualitiesareimpliedinthatgift。Hisexperienceinteachinghisownfamilymighthavetaughthimthatthegiftisnotsharedbytheaveragechild。Sofar，however，asMill’sjudgmentreferstohisowncase，itassertswhatItaketobeatruthnotalwaysadmitted。Heissometimesnoticedasanexampleoftheevilsdonebyexcessiveinstruction。Yet，afterall，hecertainlybecameoneoftheleadingmenofhisgeneration，and，ifthisstrenuouseducationwasnotthesolecause，itmustbereckonedashavingbeenonemainconditionofhissuccess。Hisfather’steachinghadclearlyone，andthatthehighest，merit。Thesonhadbeentaughtreallytousehismind；hehadbeentrainedtoargueclosely；totestconclusionsinsteadofreceivingthempassively，andtosystematisehisknowledgeasheacquiredit。Thecourseofstrenuousmentalgymnasticsqualifiedhimtoappearinearlyyouthasavigorouscontroversialist，andtoachieveanimmensequantityofvaluableworkbeforehepassedmiddleage。Itseemsimprobablethatmorecouldhavebeenmadeofhisfacultiesbyanyothersystem；andhegaveararelyapproachedinstanceofalifeinwhichthewasteofenergyisreducedtoaminimum。

Mill’sverdictmust，however，bequalifieduponanotherground，whichhemighthavebeenexpectedtorecognise。Noonewasmoreanxioustoassertingeneralthataneducationisgoodinproportionasitstimulatesthefacultiesinsteadofsimplystoringthemindwithfacts。UndoubtedlyMill’sknowledgewasofusetohim。Hebecamewidelyreadandinterestedinalargecircleofsubjects。Butwecannotholdthatthemereknowledgegavehima’quarterofacentury’start。The，knowledge，whichcanbeacquiredbyachildoffourteenisnecessarilycrude；theTheaetetusorthehistoryofThucydidescouldnotrepresentrealthoughtforhim；andonewouldrathersaythatayear’sactivityattwentywouldhaveenabledhim，ifhehadreadonlyaquarterasmuchbyfourteen，tomakeupthedeficiency。Theknowledgewasnodoubtausefulfoundation；but，sofarasitwasacquiredatthecostofexcessivestrain，thelosswouldgreatlyoverbalancethegain。ItseemsclearthatMill’shealthdidinfactsuffer；

andalossofenergywasfarmoreseriousthananychildishknowledgecouldcompensate。Icannothelpthinking，withthestalled’Philistine，’thatalittlecricketwouldhavebeenanexcellentsubstituteforhalftheancientliteratureinstilledintoaladwhowasnotpreparedreallytoappreciateeitherthethoughtortheliterarycharm。

Thesystemhadfurtherandpermanentresults。Millsawlittleofotherboys。Hisfatherwasafraidofhisbeingcorruptedoratleastvulgarisedbyassociationwiththeaverageschoolboy。Hehadleisureenough，hedeclares，thoughhewasneverallowedaholiday；buthisleisurewasdedicatedtoquietand’evenbookish’amusements。Hewasunreadyandawkward；untrainedintheordinaryaccomplishmentswhichcomefromthesocietyofcontemporaries。Theresultwas——besidesthetriflinglossofmerephysicalaccomplishments——thatMillwasarecluseeveninchildhood。Therewasanotherspecialreasonforthisisolation。