Insofarastheeconomicalconditionofnationsturnsuponthestateofphysicalknowledge，itisasubjectforthephysicalsciences，andtheartsfoundedonthem。Butinsofarasthecausesaremoralorpsychological，dependentoninstitutionsandsocialrelations，orontheprinciplesofhumannature，theirinvestigationbelongsnottophysical，buttomoralandsocialscience，andistheobjectofwhatiscalledPoliticalEconomy。
Theproductionofwealth;theextractionoftheinstrumentsofhumansubsistenceandenjoymentfromthematerialsoftheglobe，isevidentlynotanarbitrarything。Ithasitsnecessaryconditions。Ofthese，somearephysical，dependingonthepropertiesofmatter，andontheamountofknowledgeofthosepropertiespossessedattheparticularplaceandtime。ThesePoliticalEconomydoesnotinvestigate，butassumes;referringforthegrounds，tophysicalscienceorcommonexperience。
Combiningwiththesefactsofoutwardnatureothertruthsrelatingtohumannature，itattemptstotracethesecondaryorderivativelaws，bywhichtheproductionofwealthisdetermined;
inwhichmustlietheexplanationofthediversitiesofrichesandpovertyinthepresentandpast，andthegroundofwhateverincreaseinwealthisreservedforthefuture。
UnlikethelawsofProduction，thoseofDistributionarepartlyofhumaninstitution:sincethemannerinwhichwealthisdistributedinanygivensociety，dependsonthestatutesorusagesthereinobtaining。Butthoughgovernmentsornationshavethepowerofdecidingwhatinstitutionsshallexist，theycannotarbitrarilydeterminehowthoseinstitutionsshallwork。Theconditionsonwhichthepowertheypossessoverthedistributionofwealthisdependent，andthemannerinwhichthedistributioniseffectedbythevariousmodesofconductwhichsocietymaythinkfittoadopt，areasmuchasubjectforscientificenquiryasanyofthephysicallawsofnature。
ThelawsofProductionandDistribution，andsomeofthepracticalconsequencesdeduciblefromthem，arethesubjectofthefollowingtreatise。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Chapter1
OftheRequisitesofProduction
1。Therequisitesofproductionaretwo:labour，and
appropriatenaturalobjects。
Labouriseitherbodilyormental;or，toexpressthe
distinctionmorecomprehensively，eithermuscularornervous;and
itisnecessarytoincludeintheidea，notsolelytheexertion
itself，butfeelingsofadisagreeablekind，allbodily
inconvenienceormentalannoyance，connectedwiththeemployment
ofone’sthoughts，ormuscles，orboth，inaparticular
occupation。Oftheotherrequisite——appropriatenaturalobjects
——itistoberemarked，thatsomeobjectsexistorgrowup
spontaneously，ofakindsuitedtothesupplyofhumanwants。
Therearecavesandhollowtreescapableofaffordingshelter。
fruit，roots，wildhoney，andothernaturalproducts，onwhich
humanlifecanbesupported;butevenhereaconsiderable
quantityoflabourisgenerallyrequired，notforthepurposeof
creating，butoffindingandappropriatingthem。Inallbutthese
fewand（exceptintheverycommencementofhumansociety）
unimportantcases，theobjectssuppliedbynatureareonly
instrumentaltohumanwants，afterhavingundergonesomedegree
oftransformationbyhumanexertion。Eventhewildanimalsofthe
forestandofthesea，fromwhichthehuntingandfishingtribes
derivetheirsustenance——thoughthelabourofwhichtheyare
thesubjectischieflythatrequiredforappropriatingthem——
mustyet，beforetheyareusedasfood，bekilled，dividedinto
fragments，andsubjectedinalmostallcasestosomeculinary
process，whichareoperationsrequiringacertaindegreeofhuman
labour。Theamountoftransformationwhichnaturalsubstances
undergobeforebeingbroughtintotheshapeinwhichtheyare
directlyappliedtohumanuse，variesfromthisorastillless
degreeofalterationinthenatureandappearanceoftheobject，
toachangesototalthatnotraceisperceptibleoftheoriginal
shapeandstructure。Thereislittleresemblancebetweenapiece
ofamineralsubstancefoundintheearth，andaplough，anaxe，
orasaw。Thereislessresemblancebetweenporcelainandthe
decomposinggraniteitismade，orbetweensandmixedwith
sea—weed，andglass。Thedifferenceisgreaterstillbetweenthe
fleeceofasheep，orahandfulofcottonseeds，andawebof
muslinorbroadcloth;andthesheepandseedsthemselvesarenot
spontaneousgrowths，butresultsofpreviouslabourandcare。In
theseseveralcasestheultimateproductissoextremely
dissimilartothesubstancesuppliedbynature，thatinthe
customoflanguagenatureisrepresentedasonlyfurnishing
materials。
Nature，however，doesmorethansupplymaterials;shealso
suppliespowers。Thematteroftheglobeisnotaninert
recipientofformsandpropertiesimpressedbyhumanhands;it
hasactiveenergiesbywhichitco—operateswith，andmayevenbe
usedasasubstitutefor，labour。Intheearlyagespeople
convertedtheircornintoflourbypoundingitbetweentwo
stones;theynexthitonacontrivancewhichenabledthem，by
turningahandle，tomakeoneofthestonesrevolveuponthe
other;andthisprocess，alittleimproved，isstillthecommon
practiceoftheEast。Themuscularexertion，however，whichit
required，wasverysevereandexhausting，insomuchthatitwas
oftenselectedasapunishmentforslaveswhohadoffendedtheir
masters。Whenthetimecameatwhichthelabourandsufferingsof
slaveswerethoughtwortheconomizing，thegreaterpartofthis
bodilyexertionwasrenderedunnecessary，bycontrivingthatthe
upperstoneshouldbemadetorevolveuponthelower，notby
humanstrength，butbytheforceofthewindoroffallingwater。
Inthiscase，naturalagents，thewindorthegravitationofthe
water，aremadetodoaportionoftheworkpreviouslydoneby
labour。
2。Caseslikethis，inwhichacertainamountoflabourhas
beendispensedwith，itsworkbeingdevolveduponsomenatural
agent，areapttosuggestanerroneousnotionofthecomparative
functionsoflabourandnaturalpowers;asiftheco—operationof
thosepowerswithhumanindustrywerelimitedtothecasesin
whichtheyaremadetoperformwhatwouldotherwisebedoneby
labour;asif，inthecaseofthingsmade（asthephraseis）by
hand，natureonlyfurnishedpassivematerials。Thisisan
illusion。Thepowersofnatureareasactivelyoperativeinthe
onecaseasintheother。Aworkmantakesastalkoftheflaxor
hempplant，splitsitintoseparatefibres，twinestogether
severalofthesefibreswithhisfingers，aidedbyasimple
instrumentcalledaspindle;havingthusformedathread，helays
manysuchthreadssidebyside，andplacesothersimilarthreads
directlyacrossthem，sothateachpassesalternatelyoverand
underthosewhichareatrightanglestoit;thispartofthe
processbeingfacilitatedbyaninstrumentcalledashuttle。He
hasnowproducedawebofcloth，eitherlinenorsackcloth，
accordingtothematerial。Heissaidtohavedonethisbyhand，
nonaturalforcebeingsupposedtohaveactedinconcertwith
him。Butbywhatforceiseachstepofthisoperationrendered
possible，andtheweb，whenproduced，heldtogether？Bythe
tenacity，orforceofcohesion，ofthefibres:whichisoneof
theforcesinnature，andwhichwecanmeasureexactlyagainst
othermechanicalforces，andascertainhowmuchofanyofthemit
sufficestoneutralizeorcounterbalance。
Ifweexamineanyothercaseofwhatiscalledtheactionof
manuponnature，weshallfindinlikemannerthatthepowersof
nature，orinotherwordsthepropertiesofmatter，doallthe
work，whenonceobjectsareputintotherightposition。Thisone
operation，ofputtingthingsintofitplacesforbeingactedupon
bytheirowninternalforces，andbythoseresidinginother
naturalobjects，isallthatmandoes，orcando，withmatter。He
onlymovesonethingtoorfromanother。Hemovesaseedintothe
ground;andthenaturalforcesofvegetationproducein
successionaroot，astem，leaves，flowers，andfruit。Hemoves
anaxethroughatree，anditfallsbythenaturalforceof
gravitation;hemovesasawthroughit，inaparticularmanner，
andthephysicalpropertiesbywhichasoftersubstancegivesway
beforeaharder，makeitseparateintoplanks，whichhearranges
incertainpositions，withnailsdriventhroughthem，oradhesive
matterbetweenthem，andproducesatable，orahouse。Hemovesa
sparktofuel，anditignites，andbytheforcegeneratedin
combustionitcooksthefood，meltsorsoftenstheiron，converts
intobeerorsugarthemaltorcane—juice，whichhehas
previouslymovedtothespot。Hehasnoothermeansofactingon
matterthanbymovingit。Motion，andresistancetomotion，are
theonlythingswhichhismusclesareconstructedfor。By
muscularcontractionhecancreateapressureonanoutward
object，which，ifsufficientlypowerful，willsetitinmotion，
orifitbealreadymoving，willcheckormodifyoraltogether
arrestitsmotion，andhecandonomore。Butthisisenoughto
havegivenallthecommandwhichmankindhaveacquiredover
naturalforcesimmeasurablymorepowerfulthanthemselves;a
commandwhich，greatasitisalready，iswithoutdoubtdestined
tobecomeindefinitelygreater。Heexertsthispowereitherby
availinghimselfofnaturalforcesinexistence，orbyarranging
objectsinthosemixturesandcombinationsbywhichnatural
forcesaregenerated;aswhenbyputtingalightedmatchtofuel，
andwaterintoaboileroverit，hegeneratestheexpansiveforce
ofsteam，apowerwhichhasbeenmadesolargelyavailablefor
theattainmentofhumanpurposes。（1*）
Labour，then，inthephysicalworld，isalwaysandsolely
employedinputtingobjectsinmotion;thepropertiesofmatter，
thelawsofnature，dotherest。Theskillandingenuityofhuman
beingsarechieflyexercisedindiscoveringmovements，
practicablebytheirpowers，andcapableofbringingaboutthe
effectswhichtheydesire。But，whilemovementistheonlyeffect
whichmancanimmediatelyanddirectlyproducebyhismuscles，it
isnotnecessarythatheshouldproducedirectlybythemallthe
movementswhichherequires。Thefirstandmostobvious
substituteisthemuscularactionofcattle:bydegreesthe
powersofinanimatenaturearemadetoaidinthistoo，asby
makingthewind，orwater，thingsalreadyinmotion，communicate
apartoftheirmotiontothewheels，whichbeforethatinvention
weremadetorevolvebymuscularforce。Thisserviceisextorted
fromthepowersofwindandwaterbyasetofactions，consisting
liketheformerinmovingcertainobjectsintocertainpositions
inwhichtheyconstitutewhatistermedamachine;butthe
muscularactionnecessaryforthisisnotconstantlyrenewed，but
performedonceforall，andthereisonthewholeagreateconomy
oflabour。
3。Somewritershaveraisedthequestion，whethernature
givesmoreassistancetolabourinonekindofindustryorin
another;andhavesaidthatinsomeoccupationslabourdoesmost，
inothersnaturemost。Inthis，however，thereseemsmuch
confusionofideas。Thepartwhichnaturehasinanyworkofman，
isindefiniteandincommensurable。Itisimpossibletodecide
thatinanyonethingnaturedoesmorethaninanyother。One
cannotevensaythatlabourdoesless。Lesslabourmaybe
required;butifthatwhichisrequiredisabsolutely
indispensable，theresultisjustasmuchtheproductoflabour，
asofnature。Whentwoconditionsareequallynecessaryfor
producingtheeffectatall，itisunmeaningtosaythatsomuch
ofitisproducedbyoneandsomuchbytheother;itislike
attemptingtodecidewhichhalfofapairofscissorshasmostto
dointheactofcutting;orwhichofthefactors，fiveandsix，
contributesmosttotheproductionofthirty。Theformwhichthis
conceitusuallyassumes，isthatofsupposingthatnaturelends
moreassistancetohumanendeavoursinagriculture，thanin
manufactures。Thisnotion，heldbytheFrenchEconomistes，and
fromwhichAdamSmithwasnotfree，arosefromamisconceptionof
thenatureofrent。Therentoflandbeingapricepaidfora
naturalagency，andnosuchpricebeingpaidinmanufactures，
thesewritersimaginedthatsinceapricewaspaid，itwas
becausetherewasagreateramountofservicetobepaidfor。
whereasabetterconsiderationofthesubjectwouldhaveshown
thatthereasonwhytheuseoflandbearsapriceissimplythe
limitationofitsquantity，andthatifair，heat，electricity，
chemicalagencies，andtheotherpowersofnatureemployedby
manufacturers，weresparinglysupplied，andcould，likeland，be
engrossedandappropriated，arentcouldheexactedforthem
also。
4。Thisleadstoadistinctionwhichweshallfindtobeof
primaryimportance。Ofnaturalpowers，someareunlimited，others
limitedinquantity。Byanunlimitedquantityisofcoursenot
meantliterally，butpracticallyunlimited:aquantitybeyondthe
usewhichcaninany，oratleastinpresentcircumstances，be
madeofit。Landis，insomenewlysettledcountries，practically
unlimitedinquantity:thereismorethancanbeusedbythe
existingpopulationofthecountry，orbyanyaccessionlikelyto
bemadetoitforgenerationstocome。Buteventhere，land
favourablysituatedwithregardtomarketsormeansofcarriage，
isgenerallylimitedinquantity:thereisnotsomuchofitas
personswouldgladlyoccupyandcultivate，orotherwiseturnto
use。Inalloldcountries，landcapableofcultivation，landat
leastofanytolerablefertility，mustberankedamongagents
limitedinquantity。Water，forordinarypurposes，onthebanks
ofriversorlakes，mayberegardedasofunlimitedabundance;
butifrequiredforirrigation，itmayeventherebeinsufficient
tosupplyallwants，whileinplaceswhichdependfortheir
consumptiononcisternsortanks，oronwellswhicharenot
copious，orareliabletofail，watertakesitsplaceamong
thingsthequantityofwhichismoststrictlylimited。Where
wateritselfisplentiful，yetwaterpower，i。e。afallofwater
applicablebyitsmechanicalforcetotheserviceofindustry，
maybeexceedinglylimited，comparedwiththeusewhichwouldbe
madeofitifitweremoreabundant。Coal，metallicores，and
otherusefulsubstancesfoundintheearth，arestillmore
limitedthanland。Theyarenotonlystrictlylocalbut
exhaustible;though，atagivenplaceandtime，theymayexistin
muchgreaterabundancethanwouldbeappliedtopresentuseeven
iftheycouldbeobtainedgratis。Fisheries，inthesea，arein
mostcasesagiftofnaturepracticallyunlimitedinamount;but
theArcticwhalefisherieshavelongbeeninsufficientforthe
demandwhichexistsevenattheveryconsiderablepricenecessary
todefraythecostofappropriation:andtheimmenseextension
whichtheSouthernfisherieshaveinconsequenceassumed，is
tendingtoexhaustthemlikewise。Riverfisheriesareanatural
resourceofaverylimitedcharacter，andwouldberapidly
exhausted，ifallowedtobeusedbyeveryonewithoutrestraint。
Air，eventhatstateofitwhichwetermwind，may，inmost
situations，beobtainedinaquantitysufficientforevery
possibleuse;andsolikewise，ontheseacoastoronlarge
rivers，maywatercarriage:thoughthewharfageorharbour—room
applicabletotheserviceofthatmodeoftransportisinmany
situationsfarshortofwhatwouldbeusedifeasilyattainable。
Itwillbeseenhereafterhowmuchoftheeconomyofsociety
dependsonthelimitedquantityinwhichsomeofthemost
importantnaturalagentsexist，andmoreparticularlyland。For
thepresentIshallonlyremarkthatsolongasthequantityofa
naturalagentispracticallyunlimited，itcannot，unless
susceptibleofartificialmonopoly，bearanyvalueinthemarket，
sincenoonewillgiveanythingforwhatcanbeobtainedgratis。
Butassoonasalimitationbecomespracticallyoperative;as
soonasthereisnotsomuchofthethingtobehad，aswouldbe
appropriatedandusedifitcouldbeobtainedforasking;the
ownershiporuseofthenaturalagentacquiresanexchangeable
value。Whenmorewaterpoweriswantedinaparticulardistrict，
thantherearefallsofwatertosupplyit，personswillgivean
equivalentfortheuseofafallofwater。Whenthereismore
landwantedforcultivationthanaplacepossesses，orthanit
possessesofacertainqualityandcertainadvantagesof
situation，landofthatqualityandsituationmaybesoldfora
price，orletforanannualrent。Thissubjectwillhereafterbe
discussedatlength;butitisoftenusefultoanticipate，bya
briefsuggestion，principlesanddeductionswhichwehavenotyet
reachedtheplaceforexhibitingandillustratingfully。
NOTES:
1。Thisessentialandprimarylawofman’spowerovernaturewas，
Ibelieve，firstillustratedandmadeprominantasafundamental
principleofPoliticalEconomy，inthefirstchapterofMr。
Mill’sElements。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book1:Chapter2
OfLabourasanAgentofProduction
1。Thelabourwhichterminatesintheproductionofan
articlefittedforsomehumanuse，iseitheremployeddirectly
aboutthething，orinpreviousoperationsdestinedto
facilitate，perhapsessentialtothepossibilityof，the
subsequentones。Inmakingbread，forexample，thelabour
employedaboutthethingitselfisthatofthebaker;butthe
labourofthemiller，thoughemployeddirectlyintheproduction
notofbreadbutofflour，isequallypartoftheaggregatesum
oflabourbywhichthebreadisproduced;asisalsothelabour
ofthesowerandofthereaper。Somemaythinkthatallthese
personsoughttobeconsideredasemployingtheirlabourdirectly
aboutthething;thecorn，theflour，andthebreadbeingone
substanceinthreedifferentstates。Withoutdisputingaboutthis
questionofmerelanguage，thereisstilltheploughman，who
preparedthegroundfortheseed，andwhoselabournevercamein
contactwiththesubstanceinanyofitsstates;andthe
plough—maker，whoseshareintheresultwasstillmoreremote。
Allthesepersonsultimatelyderivetheremunerationoftheir
labourfromthebread，oritsprice:theplough—makerasmuchas
therest;forsinceploughsareofnouseexceptfortillingthe
soil，noonewouldmakeoruseploughsforanyotherreasonthan
becausetheincreasedreturns，therebyobtainedfromtheground，
affordedasourcefromwhichanadequateequivalentcouldbe
assignedforthelabouroftheplough—maker。Iftheproduceisto
beusedorconsumedintheformofbread，itisfromthebread
thatthisequivalentmustcome。Thebreadmustsufficeto
remuneratealltheselabourers，andseveralothers;suchasthe
carpentersandbricklayerswhoerectedthefarm—buildings;the
hedgersandditcherswhomadethefencesnecessaryforthe
protectionofthecrop;theminersandsmelterswhoextractedor
preparedtheironofwhichtheploughandotherinstrumentswere
made。These，however，andtheplough—maker，donotdependfor
theirremunerationuponthebreadmadefromtheproduceofa
singleharvest，butuponthatmadefromtheproduceofallthe
harvestswhicharesuccessivelygathereduntiltheplough，orthe
buildingsandfences，arewornout。Wemustaddyetanotherkind
oflabour;thatoftransportingtheproducefromtheplaceofits
productiontotheplaceofitsdestineduse:thelabourof
carryingthecorntomarket，andfrommarkettothemiller’s，the
flourfromthemiller’stothebaker’s，andthebreadfromthe
baker’stotheplaceofitsfinalconsumption。Thislabouris
sometimesveryconsiderable:flouristransportedtoEnglandfrom
beyondtheAtlantic，cornfromtheheartofRussia;andin
additiontothelabourersimmediatelyemployed，thewaggonersand
sailors，therearealsocostlyinstruments，suchasships，inthe
constructionofwhichmuchlabourhasbeenexpended:thatlabour，
however，notdependingforitswholeremunerationuponthebread，
butforapartonly;shipsbeingusually，duringthecourseof
theirexistence，employedinthetransportofmanydifferent
kindsofcommodities。
Toestimate，therefore，thelabourofwhichanygiven
commodityistheresult，isfarfromasimpleoperation。The
itemsinthecalculationareverynumerous—asitmayseemtosome
persons，infinitelysO;forif，asapartofthelabouremployed
inmakingbread，wecountthelabouroftheblacksmithwhomade
theplough，whynotalso（itmaybeasked）thelabourofmaking
thetoolsusedbytheblacksmith，andthetoolsusedinmaking
thosetools，andsobacktotheoriginofthings？Butafter
mountingoneortwostepsinthisascendingscale，wecomeintoa
regionoffactionstoominuteforcalculation。Suppose，for
instance，thatthesameploughwilllast，beforebeingwornout，
adozenyears。Onlyone—twelfthofthelabourofmakingthe
ploughmustbeplacedtotheaccountofeachyear’sharvest。A
twelfthpartofthelabourofmakingaploughisanappreciable
quantity。Butthesamesetoftools，perhaps，sufficetothe
plough—makerforforgingahundredploughs，whichserveduring
thetwelveyearsoftheirexistencetopreparethesoilofas
manydifferentfarms。Atwelve—hundredthpartofthelabourof
makinghistools，isasmuch，therefore，ashasbeenexpendedin
procuringoneyear’sharvestofasinglefarm:andwhenthis
fractioncomestobefurtherapportionedamongthevarioussacks
ofcornandloavesofbread，itisseenatoncethatsuch
quantitiesarenotworthtakingintotheaccountforany
practicalpurposeconnectedwiththecommodity。Itistruethat
ifthetool—makerhadnotlaboured，thecornandbreadnever
wouldhavebeenproduced;buttheywillnotbesoldatenthpart
ofafarthingdearerinconsiderationofhislabour。
2。Anotherofthemodesinwhichlabourisindirectlyor
remotelyinstrumentaltotheproductionofathing，requires
particularnotice:namely，whenitisemployedinproducing
subsistence，tomaintainthelabourerswhiletheyareengagedin
theproduction。Thispreviousemploymentoflabourisan
indispensableconditiontoeveryproductiveoperation，onany
otherthantheverysmallestscale。Exceptthelabourofthe
hunterandfisher，thereisscarcelyanykindoflabourtowhich
thereturnsareimmediate。Productiveoperationsrequiretobe
continuedacertaintime，beforetheirfruitsareobtained。
Unlessthelabourer，beforecommencinghiswork，possessesa
storeoffood，orcanobtainaccesstothestoresofsomeone
else，insufficientquantitytomaintainhimuntiltheproduction
iscompleted，hecanundertakenolabourbutsuchascanbe
carriedonatoddintervals，concurrentlywiththepursuitofhis
subsistence。Hecannotobtainfooditselfinanyabundance;for
everymodeofsoobtainingit，requiresthattherebealready
foodinstore。Agricultureonlybringsforthfoodafterthelapse
ofmonths;andthoughthelaboursoftheagriculturistarenot
necessarilycontinuousduringthewholeperiod，theymustoccupy
aconsiderablepartofit。Notonlyisagricultureimpossible
withoutfoodproducedinadvance，buttheremustbeaverygreat
quantityinadvancetoenableanyconsiderablecommunityto
supportitselfwhollybyagriculture。AcountrylikeEnglandor
Franceisonlyabletocarryontheagricultureofthepresent
year，becausethatofpastyearshasprovided，inthosecountries
orsomewhereelse，sufficientfoodtosupporttheiragricultural
populationuntilthenextharvest。Theyareonlyenabledto
producesomanyotherthingsbesidesfood，becausethefoodwhich
wasinstoreatthecloseofthelastharvestsufficesto
maintainnotonlytheagriculturallabourers，butalarge
industriouspopulationbesides。
Thelabouremployedinproducingthisstockofsubsistence，
formsagreatandimportantpartofthepastlabourwhichhas
beennecessarytoenablepresentlabourtobecarriedon。But
thereisadifference，requiringparticularnotice，betweenthis
andtheotherkindsofpreviousorpreparatorylabour。The
miller，thereaper，theploughman，theplough—maker，thewaggoner
andwaggon—maker，eventhesailorandship—builderwhenemployed，
derivetheirremunerationfromtheultimateproduct—thebread
madefromthecornonwhichtheyhaveseverallyoperated，or
suppliedtheinstrumentsforoperating。Thelabourthatproduced
thefoodwhichfedalltheselabourers，isasnecessarytothe
ultimateresult，thebreadofthepresentharvest，asanyof
thoseotherportionsoflabour;butisnot，likethem，
remuneratedfromit。Thatpreviouslabourhasreceivedits
remunerationfromthepreviousfood。Inordertoraiseany
product，thereareneededlabour，tools，andmaterials，andfood
tofeedthelabourers。Butthetoolsandmaterialsareofnouse
exceptforobtainingtheproduct，oratleastaretobeapplied
tonootheruse，andthelabouroftheirconstructioncanbe
remuneratedonlyfromtheproductwhenobtained。Thefood，onthe
contrary，isintrinsicallyuseful，andisappliedtothedirect
useoffeedinghumanbeings。Thelabourexpendedinproducingthe
food，andrecompensedbyit，needsnotberemuneratedoveragain
fromtheproduceofthesubsequentlabourwhichithasfed。Ifwe
supposethatthesamebodyoflabourerscarriedonamanufacture，
andgrewfoodtosustainthemselveswhiledoingit，theyhavehad
fortheirtroublethefoodandthemanufacturedarticle;butif
theyalsogrewthematerialandmadethetools，theyhavehad
nothingforthattroublebutthemanufacturedarticlealone。
Theclaimtoremunerationfoundedonthepossessionoffood，
availableforthemaintenanceoflabourers，isofanotherkind;
remunerationforabstinence，notforlabour。Ifapersonhasa
storeoffood，hehasitinhispowertoconsumeithimselfin
idleness，orinfeedingotherstoattendonhim，ortofightfor
him，ortosingordanceforhim。If，insteadofthesethings，he
givesittoproductivelabourerstosupportthemduringtheir
work，hecan，andnaturallywill，claimaremunerationfromthe
produce。Hewillnotbecontentwithsimplerepayment;ifhe
receivesmerelythat，heisonlyinthesamesituationasat
first，andhasderivednoadvantagefromdelayingtoapplyhis
savingstohisownbenefitorpleasure。Hewilllookforsome
equivalentforthisforbearance:hewillexpecthisadvanceof
foodtocomebacktohimwithanincrease，calledinthelanguage
ofbusiness，aprofit;andthehopeofthisprofitwillgenerally
havebeenapartoftheinducementwhichmadehimaccumulatea
stock，byeconomizinginhisownconsumption;or，atanyrate，
whichmadehimforegotheapplicationofit，whenaccumulated，to
hispersonaleaseorsatisfaction。Thefoodalsowhichmaintained
otherworkmenwhileproducingthetoolsormaterials，musthave
beenprovidedinadvancebysomeone，andhe，too，musthavehis
profitfromtheultimateproduct;butthereisthisdifference，
thatheretheultimateproducthastosupplynotonlytheprofit，
butalsotheremunerationofthelabour。Thetool—maker（say，for
instance，theploughmaker）doesnotindeedusuallywaitforhis
paymentuntiltheharvestisreaped;thefarmeradvancesitto
him，andstepsintohisplacebybecomingtheownerofthe
plough。Nevertheless，itisfromtheharvestthatthepaymentis
tocome;sincethefarmerwouldnotundertakethisoutlayunless
heexpectedthattheharvestwouldrepayhim，andwithaprofit
tooonthisfreshadvance;thatis，unlesstheharvestwould
yield，besidestheremunerationofthefarmlabourers（anda
profitforadvancingit），asufficientresiduetoremuneratethe
plough—maker’slabourers，givetheplough—makeraprofit，anda
profittothefarmeronboth。
3。Fromtheseconsiderationsitappears，thatinan
enumerationandclassificationofthekindsofindustrywhichare
intendedfortheindirectorremotefurtheranceofother
productivelabour，weneednotincludethelabourofproducing
subsistenceorothernecessariesoflifetobeconsumedby
productivelabourers;forthemainendandpurposeofthislabour
isthesubsistenceitself;andthoughthepossessionofastore
ofitenablesotherworktobedone，thisisbutanincidental
consequence。Theremainingmodesinwhichlabourisindirectly
instrumentaltoproduction，maybearrangedunderfiveheads。
First:Labouremployedinproducingmaterials，onwhich
industryistobeafterwardsemployed。Thisis，inmanycases，a
labourofmereappropriation;extractiveindustry，asithasbeen
aptlynamedbyM。Dunoyer。Thelabouroftheminer，forexample，
consistsofoperationsfordiggingoutoftheearthsubstances
convertiblebyindustryintovariousarticlesfittedforhuman
use。Extractiveindustry，however，isnotconfinedtothe
extractionofmaterials。Coal，forinstance，isemployed，not
onlyintheprocessofindustry，butindirectlywarminghuman
beings。Whensoused，itisnotamaterialofproduction，butis
itselftheultimateproduct。So，also，inthecaseofamineof
preciousstones。Thesearetosomesmallextentemployedinthe
productivearts，asdiamondsbytheglass—cutter，emeryand
corundumforpolishing，buttheirprincipaldestination，thatof
ornament，isadirectuse;thoughtheycommonlyrequire，before
beingsoused，someprocessofmanufacture，whichmayperhaps
warrantourregardingthemasmaterials。Metallicoresofall
sortsarematerialsmerely。
Underthehead，productionofmaterials，wemustincludethe
industryofthewood—cutter，whenemployedincuttingand
preparingtimberforbuilding，orwoodforthepurposesofthe
carpenter’soranyotherart。IntheforestsofAmerica，Norway，
Germany，thePyreneesandAlps，thissortoflabourislargely
employedontreesofspontaneousgrowth。Inothercases，wemust
addtothelabourofthewood—cutterthatoftheplanterand
cultivator。
Underthesameheadarealsocomprisedthelaboursofthe
agriculturistingrowingflax，hemp，cotton，feedingsilkworms，
risingfoodforcattle，producingbark，dye—stuffs，some
oleaginousplants，andmanyotherthingsonlyusefulbecause
requiredinotherdepartmentsofindustry。So，too，thelabourof
thehunter，asfarashisobjectisfursorfeathers;ofthe
shepherdandthecattle—breeder，inrespectofwool，hides，horn，
bristles，horse—hair，andthelike。Thethingsusedasmaterials
insomeprocessorotherofmanufactureareofamost
miscellaneouscharacter，drawnfromalmosteveryquarterofthe
animal，vegetable，andmineralkingdoms。Andbesidesthis，the
finishedproductsofmanybranchesofindustryarethematerials
ofothers。Thethreadproducedbythespinnerisappliedto
hardlyanyuseexceptasmaterialfortheweaver。Eventhe
productoftheloomischieflyusedasmaterialforthe
fabricatorsofarticlesofdressorfurniture，oroffurther
instrumentsofproductiveindustry，asinthecaseofthe
sailmaker。Thecurrierandtannerfindtheirwholeoccupationin
convertingrawmaterialintowhatmaybetermedprepared
material。Instrictnessofspeech，almostallfood，asitcomes
fromthehandsoftheagriculturist，isnothingmorethan
materialfortheoccupationofthebakerorthecook。
4。Thesecondkindofindirectlabouristhatemployedin
makingtoolsorimplementsfortheassistanceoflabour。Iuse
thesetermsintheirmostcomprehensivesense，embracingall
permanentinstrumentsorhelpstoproduction，fromaflintand
steelforstrikingalight，toasteamship，orthemostcomplex
apparatusofmanufacturingmachinery。Theremaybesome
hesitationwheretodrawthelinebetweenimplementsand
materials;andsomethingsusedinproduction（suchasfuel）
wouldscarcelyincommonlanguagebecalledbyeithername，
popularphraseologybeingshapedoutbyadifferentclassof
necessitiesfromthoseofscientificexposition。Toavoida
multiplicationofclassesanddenominationsansweringto
distinctionsofnoscientificimportance，politicaleconomists
generallyincludeallthingswhichareusedasimmediatemeansof
production（themeanswhicharenotimmediatewillbeconsidered
presently）eitherintheclassofimplementsorinthatof
materials。Perhapsthelineismostusuallyandmostconveniently
drawn，byconsideringasamaterialeveryinstrumentof
productionwhichcanonlybeusedonce，beingdestroyed（atleast
asaninstrumentforthepurposeinhand）byasingleemployment。
Thusfuel，onceburnt，cannotbeagainusedasfuel;whatcanbe
sousedisonlyanyportionwhichhasremainedunburntthefirst
time。Andnotonlyitcannotbeusedwithoutbeingconsumed，but
itisonlyusefulbybeingconsumed;forifnopartofthefuel
weredestroyed，noheatwouldbegenerated。Afleece，again，is
destroyedasafleecebybeingspunintothread;andthethread
cannotbeusedasthreadwhenwovenintocloth。Butanaxeisnot
destroyedasanaxebycuttingdownatree:itmaybeused
afterwardstocutdownahundredorathousandmore;andthough
deterioratedinsomesmalldegreebyeachuse，itdoesnotdoits
workbybeingdeteriorated，asthecoalandthefleecedotheirs
bybeingdestroyed;onthecontrary，itisthebetterinstrument
thebetteritresistsdeterioration。Therearesomethings，
rightlyclassedasmaterials，whichmaybeusedassuchasecond
andathirdtime，butnotwhiletheproducttowhichtheyat
firstcontributedremainsinexistence。Theironwhichformeda
tankorasetofpipesmaybemeltedtoformaploughora
steam—engine;thestoneswithwhichahousewasbuiltmaybeused
afteritispulleddown，tobuildanother。Butthiscannotbe
donewhiletheoriginalproductsubsists;theirfunctionas
materialsissuspended，untiltheexhaustionofthefirstuse。
Notsowiththethingsclassedasimplements;theymaybeused
repeatedlyforfreshwork，untilthetime，sometimesvery
distant，atwhichtheyarewornout，whiletheworkalreadydone
bythemmaysubsistunimpaired，andwhenitperishes，doessoby
itsownlaws，orbycasualtiesofitsown。（1*）
Theonlypracticaldifferenceofmuchimportancearisingfrom
thedistinctionbetweenmaterialsandimplements，isonewhich
hasattractedourattentioninanothercase。Sincematerialsare
destroyedassuchbybeingonceused，thewholeofthelabour
requiredfortheirproduction，aswellastheabstinenceofthe
personwhosuppliedthemeansforcarryingiton，mustbe
remuneratedfromthefruitsofthatsingleuse。Implements，on
thecontrary，beingsusceptibleofrepeatedemployment，thewhole
oftheproductswhichtheyareinstrumentalinbringinginto
existenceareafundwhichcanbedrawnupontoremuneratethe
labouroftheirconstruction，andtheabstinenceofthoseby
whoseaccumulationsthatlabourwassupported。Itisenoughif
eachproductcontributesafraction，commonlyaninsignificant
one，towardstheremunerationofthatlabourandabstinence，or
towardsindemnifyingtheimmediateproducerforadvancingthat
remunerationtothepersonwhoproducedthetools。
5。Thirdly:Besidesmaterialsforindustrytoemployitself
on，andimplementstoaidit，provisionmustbemadetoprevent
itsoperationsfrombeingdisturbed，anditsproductsinjured，
eitherbythedestroyingagenciesofnature，orbytheviolence
orrapacityofmen。Thisgivesrisetoanothermodeinwhich
labournotemployeddirectlyabouttheproductitself，is
instrumentaltoitsproduction;namely，whenemployedforthe
protectionofindustry。Suchistheobjectofallbuildingsfor
industrialpurposes;allmanufactories，warehouses，docks，
granaries，barns，farm—buildingsdevotedtocattle，ortothe
operationsofagriculturallabour。Iexcludethoseinwhichthe
labourerslive，orwhicharedestinedfortheirpersonal
accommodation:these，liketheirfood，supplyactualwants，and
mustbecountedintheremunerationoftheirlabour。Thereare
manymodesinwhichlabourisstillmoredirectlyappliedtothe
protectionofproductiveoperations。Theherdsmanhaslittle
otheroccupationthantoprotectthecattlefromharm:the
positiveagenciesconcernedintherealizationoftheproduct，go
onnearlyofthemselves。Ihavealreadymentionedthelabourof
thehedgerandditcher，ofthebuilderofwallsordykes。To
thesemustbeaddedthatofthesoldier，thepoliceman，andthe
judge。Thesefunctionariesarenotindeedemployedexclusivelyin
theprotectionofindustry，nordoestheirpaymentconstitute，to
theindividualproducer，apartoftheexpensesofproduction。
Buttheyarepaidfromthetaxes，whicharederivedfromthe
produceofindustry;andinanytolerablygovernedcountrythey
rendertoitsoperationsaservicefarmorethanequivalentto
thecost。Tosocietyatlargetheyarethereforepartofthe
expensesofproduction;andifthereturnstoproductionwerenot
sufficienttomaintaintheselabourersinadditiontoallthe
othersrequired，production，atleastinthatformandmanner，
couldnottakeplace。Besides，iftheprotectionwhichthe
governmentaffordstotheoperationsofindustrywerenot
afforded，theproducerswouldbeunderanecessityofeither
withdrawingalargeshareoftheirtimeandlabourfrom
production，toemployitindefence，orofengagingarmedmento
defendthem;allwhichlabour，inthatcase，mustbedirectly
remuneratedfromtheproduce;andthingswhichcouldnotpayfor
thisadditionallabour，wouldnotbeproduced。Underthepresent
arrangements，theproductpaysitsquotatowardsthesame
protection，andnotwithstandingthewasteandprodigality
incidenttogovernmentexpenditure，obtainsitofbetterquality
atamuchsmallercost。
6。Fourthly:Thereisaverygreatamountoflabouremployed，
notinbringingtheproductintoexistence，butinrenderingit，
wheninexistence，accessibletothoseforwhoseuseitis
intended。Manyimportantclassesoflabourersfindtheirsole
employmentinsomefunctionofthiskind。Thereisfirstthe
wholeclassofcarriers，bylandorwater。muleteers，waggoners，
bargemen，sailors，wharfmen，coalheavers，porters，railway
establishments，andthelike。Next，therearetheconstructorsof
alltheimplementsoftransport;ships，barges，carts，
locomotives，&c。，towhichmustbeaddedroads，canals，and
railways。Roadsaresometimesmadebythegovernment，andopened
gratuitouslytothepublic;butthelabourofmakingthemisnot
thelesspaidforfromtheproduce。Eachproducer，inpayinghis
quotaofthetaxesleviedgenerallyfortheconstructionof
roads，paysfortheuseofthosewhichconducetohis
convenience;andifmadewithanytolerablejudgment，they
increasethereturnstohisindustrybyfarmorethanan
equivalentamount。
Anothernumerousclassoflabourersemployedinrenderingthe
thingsproducedaccessibletotheirintendedconsumers，isthe
classofdealersandtraders，or，astheymaybetermed，
distributors。Therewouldbeagreatwasteoftimeandtrouble，
andaninconvenienceoftenamountingtoimpracticability，if
consumerscouldonlyobtainthearticlestheywantbytreating
directlywiththeproducers。Bothproducersandconsumersaretoo
muchscattered，andthelatteroftenattoogreatadistancefrom
theformer。Todiminishthislossoftimeandlabour，the
contrivanceoffairsandmarketswasearlyhadrecourseto，where
consumersandproducersmightperiodicallymeet，withoutany
intermediateagency;andthisplananswerstolerablywellfor
manyarticles，especiallyagriculturalproduce，agriculturists
havingatsomeseasonsacertainquantityofsparetimeontheir
hands。Buteveninthiscase，attendanceisoftenvery
troublesomeandinconvenienttobuyerswhohaveother
occupations，anddonotliveintheimmediatevicinity;while，
forallarticlestheproductionofwhichrequirescontinuous
attentionfromtheproducers，theseperiodicalmarketsmustbe
heldatsuchconsiderableintervals，andthewantsofthe
consumersmusteitherbeprovidedforsolongbeforehand，ormust
remainsolongunsupplied，thatevenbeforetheresourcesof
societyadmittedoftheestablishmentofshops，thesupplyof
thesewantsfelluniversallyintothehandsofitinerantdealers:
thepedlar，whomightappearonceamonth，beingpreferredtothe
fair，whichonlyreturnedonceortwiceayear。Incountry
districts，remotefromtownsorlargevillages，theindustryof
thepedlarisnotyetwhollysuperseded。Butadealerwhohasa
fixedabodeandfixedcustomersissomuchmoretobedepended
on，thatconsumerspreferresortingtohimifheisconveniently
accessible;anddealersthereforefindtheiradvantagein
establishingthemselvesineverylocalitywherethereare
sufficientconsumersnearathandtoaffordthemaremuneration。
Inmanycasestheproducersanddealersarethesamepersons，
atleastastotheownershipofthefundsandthecontrolofthe
operations。Thetailor，theshoemaker，thebaker，andmanyother
tradesmen，aretheproducersofthearticlestheydealin，sofar
asregardsthelaststageintheproduction。Thisunion，however，
ofthefunctionsofmanufacturerandretailerisonlyexpedient
whenthearticlecanadvantageouslybemadeatorneartheplace
convenientforretailingit，andis，besides，manufacturedand
soldinsmallparcels。Whenthingshavetobebroughtfroma
distance，thesamepersoncannoteffectuallysuperintendboththe
makingandtheretailingofthem;whentheyarebestandmost
cheaplymadeonalargescale，asinglemanufactoryrequiresso
manylocalchannelstocarryoffitssupply，thattheretailing
ismostconvenientlydelegatedtootheragency;andevenshoes
andcoats，whentheyaretobefurnishedinlargequantitiesat
once，asforthesupplyofaregimentorofaworkhouse，are
usuallyobtainednotdirectlyfromtheproducers，butfrom
intermediatedealers，whomakeittheirbusinesstoascertain
fromwhatproducerstheycanbeobtainedbestandcheapest。Even
whenthingsaredestinedtobeatlastsoldbyretail，
conveniencesooncreatesaclassofwholesaledealers。When
productsandtransactionshavemultipliedbeyondacertainpoint;
whenonemanufactorysuppliesmanyshops，andoneshophasoften
toobtaingoodsfrommanydifferentmanufactories，thelossof
timeandtroublebothtothemanufacturersandtotheretailers
bytreatingdirectlywithoneanothermakesitmoreconvenientto
themtotreatwithasmallernumberofgreatdealersor
merchants，whoonlybuytosellagain，collectinggoodsfromthe
variousproducersanddistributingthemtotheretailers，tobe
bythemfurtherdistributedamongtheconsumers。Ofthesevarious
elementsiscomposedtheDistributingClass，whoseagencyis
supplementarytothatoftheProducingClass:andtheproduceso
distributed，oritsprice，isthesourcefromwhichthe
distributorsareremuneratedfortheirexertions，andforthe
abstinencewhichenabledthemtoadvancethefundsneedfulfor
thebusinessofdistribution。
7。Wehavenowcompletedtheenumerationofthemodesin
whichlabouremployedonexternalnatureissubservientto
production。Butthereisyetanothermodeofemployinglabour，
whichconducesequally，thoughstillmoreremotely，tothatend:
thisis，labourofwhichthesubjectishumanbeings。Everyhuman
beinghasbeenbroughtupfrominfancyattheexpenseofmuch
labourtosomepersonorpersons，andifthislabour，orpartof
it，hadnotbeenbestowed，thechildwouldneverhaveattained
theageandstrengthwhichenablehimtobecomealabourerinhis
turn。Tothecommunityatlarge，thelabourandexpenseof
rearingitsinfantpopulationformapartoftheoutlaywhichis
aconditionofproduction，andwhichistobereplacedwith
increasefromthefutureproduceoftheirlabour。Bythe
individuals，thislabourandexpenseareusuallyincurredfrom
othermotivesthantoobtainsuchultimatereturn，and，formost
purposesofpoliticaleconomy，neednotbetakenintoaccountas
expensesofproduction。Butthetechnicalorindustrialeducation
ofthecommunity;thelabouremployedinlearningandinteaching
theartsofproduction，inacquiringandcommunicatingskillin
thosearts;thislabourisreally，andingeneralsolely，
undergoneforthesakeofthegreaterormorevaluableproduce
therebyattained，andinorderthataremuneration，equivalentor
morethanequivalent，maybereapedbythelearner，besidesan
adequateremunerationforthelabouroftheteacher，whena
teacherhasbeenemployed。
Asthelabourwhichconfersproductivepowers，whetherof
handorofhead，maybelookeduponaspartofthelabourby
whichsocietyaccomplishesitsproductiveoperations，orinother
words，aspartofwhattheproducecoststosociety，sotoomay
thelabouremployedinkeepingupproductivepowers;in
preventingthemfrombeingdestroyedorweakenedbyaccidentor
disease。Thelabourofaphysicianorsurgeon，whenmadeuseof
bypersonsengagedinindustry，mustberegardedintheeconomy
ofsocietyasasacrificeincurred，topreservefromperishingby
deathorinfirmitythatportionoftheproductiveresourcesof
societywhichisfixedinthelivesandbodilyormentalpowers
ofitsproductivemembers。Totheindividuals，indeed，thisforms
butapart，sometimesanimperceptiblepart，ofthemotivesthat
inducethemtosubmittomedicaltreatment:itisnotprincipally
fromeconomicalmotivesthatpersonshavealimbamputated，or
endeavourtobecuredofafever，thoughwhentheydoso，there
isgenerallysufficientinducementforitevenonthatscore
alone。Thisis，therefore，oneofthecasesoflabourandoutlay
which，thoughconducivetoproduction，yetnotbeingincurredfor
thatend，orforthesakeofthereturnsarisingfromit，areout
ofthesphereofmostofthegeneralpropositionswhichpolitical
economyhasoccasiontoassertrespectingproductivelabour:
though，whensocietyandnottheindividualsareconsidered，this
labourandoutlaymustberegardedaspartoftheadvanceby
whichsocietyeffectsitsproductiveoperations，andforwhichit
isindemnifiedbytheproduce。
