8。Anotherkindoflabour，usuallyclassedasmental，but

conducingtotheultimateproductasdirectly，thoughnotso

immediately，asmanuallabouritself，isthelabourofthe

inventorsofindustrialprocesses。Isay，usuallyclassedas

mental，becauseinrealityitisnotexclusivelyso。Allhuman

exertioniscompoundedofsomementalandsomebodilyelements。

Thestupidesthodman，whorepeatsfromdaytodaythemechanical

actofclimbingaladder，performsafunctionpartly

intellectual;somuchso，indeed，thatthemostintelligentdog

orelephantcouldnot，probably，betaughttodoit。Thedullest

humanbeing，instructedbeforehand，iscapableofturningamill;

butahorsecannotturnitwithoutsomebodytodriveandwatch

him。Ontheotherhand，thereissomebodilyingredientinthe

labourmostpurelymental，whenitgeneratesanyexternalresult。

NewtoncouldnothaveproducedthePrincipiawithoutthebodily

exertioneitherofpenmanshiporofdictation;andhemusthave

drawnmanydiagrams，andwrittenoutmanycalculationsand

demonstrations，whilehewaspreparingitinhismind。Inventors，

besidesthelabouroftheirbrains，generallygothroughmuch

labourwiththeirhands，inthemodelswhichtheyconstructand

theexperimentstheyhavetomakebeforetheirideacanrealize

itselfsuccessfullyinact。Whethermental，however，orbodily，

theirlabourisapartofthatbywhichtheproductionisbrought

about。ThelabourofWattincontrivingthesteam—enginewasas

essentialapartofproductionasthatofthemechanicswhobuild

ortheengineerswhoworktheinstrument;andwasundergone，no

lessthantheirs，intheprospectofaremunerationfromthe

produce。Thelabourofinventionisoftenestimatedandpaidon

theverysameplanasthatofexecution。Manymanufacturersof

ornamentalgoodshaveinventorsintheiremployment，whoreceive

wagesorsalariesfordesigningpatterns，exactlyasothersdo

forcopyingthem。Allthisisstrictlypartofthelabourof

production;asthelabouroftheauthorofabookisequallya

partofitsproductionwiththatoftheprinterandbinder。

Inanational，oruniversalpointofview，thelabourofthe

savant，orspeculativethinker，isasmuchapartofproduction

intheverynarrowestsense，asthatoftheinventorofa

practicalart;manysuchinventionshavingbeenthedirect

consequencesoftheoreticdiscoveries，andeveryextensionof

knowledgeofthepowersofnaturebeingfruitfulofapplications

tothepurposesofoutwardlife。Theelectro—magnetictelegraph

wasthewonderfulandmostunexpectedconsequenceofthe

experimentsofOErstedandthemathematicalinvestigationsof

Amp鑢e:andthemodernartofnavigationisanunforeseen

emanationfromthepurelyspeculativeandapparentlymerely

curiousenquiry，bythemathematiciansofAlexandria，intothe

propertiesofthreecurvesformedbytheintersectionofaplane

surfaceandacone。Nolimitcanbesettotheimportance，even

inapurelyproductiveandmaterialpointofview，ofmere

thought。Inasmuch，however，asthesematerialfruits，thoughthe

result，areseldomthedirectpurposeofthepursuitsofsavants，

noristheirremunerationingeneralderivedfromtheincreased

productionwhichmaybecausedincidentally，andmostlyaftera

longinterval，bytheirdiscoveries;thisultimateinfluencedoes

not，formostofthepurposesofpoliticaleconomy，requiretobe

takenintoconsideration;aregenerallyclassedastheproducers

onlyofbooks，orotheruseableorsaleablearticles，which

directlyemanatefromthem。Butwhen（asinpoliticaleconomyone

shouldalwaysbepreparedtodo）weshiftourpointofview，and

considernotindividualacts，andthemotivesbywhichtheyare

determined，hutnationalanduniversalresults，intellectual

speculationmustbelookeduponasamostinfluentialpartofthe

productivelabourofsociety，andtheportionofitsresources

employedincarryingonandinremuneratingsuchlabour，asa

highlyproductivepartofitsexpenditure。

9。Intheforegoingsurveyofthemodesofemployinglabour

infurtheranceofproduction，Ihavemadelittleuseofthe

populardistinctionofindustryintoagricultural，manufacturing，

andcommercial。For，intruth，thisdivisionfulfilsverybadly

thepurposesofaclassification。Manygreatbranchesof

productiveindustryfindnoplaceinit，ornotwithoutmuch

straining;forexample（nottospeakofhuntersorfishers）the

miner，theroad—maker，andthesailor。Thelimit，too，between

agriculturalandmanufacturingindustrycannotbeprecisely

drawn。Themiller，forinstance，andthebaker—aretheytobe

reckonedamongagriculturists，oramongmanufacturers？Their

occupationisinitsnaturemanufacturing;thefoodhasfinally

partedcompanywiththesoilbeforeitishandedovertothem:

this，however，mightbesaidwithequaltruthofthethresher，

thewinnower，themakersofbutterandcheese;operationsalways

countedasagricultural，probablybecauseitisthecustomfor

themtobeperformedbypersonsresidentonthefarm，andunder

thesamesuperintendenceastillage。Formanypurposesallthese

persons，themillerandbakerinclusive，mustbeplacedinthe

sameclasswithploughmenandreapers。Theyareallconcernedin

producingfood，anddependfortheirremunerationonthefood

produced;whentheoneclassaboundsandflourishes，theothers

dosotoo;theyformcollectivelythe"agriculturalinterest;"

theyrenderbutoneservicetothecommunitybytheirunited

labours，andarepaidfromonecommonsource。Eventhetillersof

thesoil，again，whentheproduceisnotfood，butthematerials

ofwhatarecommonlytermedmanufactures，belonginmanyrespects

tothesamedivisionintheeconomyofsocietyasmanufacturers。

Thecotton—planterofCarolina，andthewool—growerofAustralia，

havemoreinterestsincommonwiththespinnerandweaverthan

withthecorngrower。But，ontheotherhand，theindustrywhich

operatesimmediatelyuponthesoilhas，asweshallsee

hereafter，somepropertiesonwhichmanyimportantconsequences

depend，andwhichdistinguishitfromallthesubsequentstages

ofproduction，whethercarriedonbythesamepersonornot;from

theindustryofthethresherandwinnower，asmuchasfromthat

ofthecotton—spinner。WhenIspeak，therefore，ofagricultural

labour，Ishallgenerallymeanthis，andthisexclusively，unless

thecontraryiseitherstatedorimpliedinthecontext。Theterm

manufacturingistoovaguetobeofmuchusewhenprecisionis

required，andwhenIemployit，Iwishtobeunderstoodas

intendingtospeakpopularlyratherthanscientifically。

NOTES:

1。Theableandfriendlyreviewerofthistreatiseinthe

EdinburghReview（October1848）conceivesthedistinctionbetween

materialsandimplementsratherdifferently;proposingto

considerasmaterials"allthingswhich，afterhavingundergone

thechangeimpliedinproduction，arethemselvesmatterof

exchange，"andasimplements（orinstruments）"thethingswhich

areemployedinproducingthatchange，butdonotthemselves

becomepartoftheexchangeableresult。"Accordingtothese

definitions，thefuelconsumedinamanufactorywouldbe

considered，notasamaterial，butasaninstrument。Thisuseof

thetermsaccordsbetterthatthatproposedinthetext，withthe

primitivephysicalmeaningoftheword"material";butthe

distinctiononwhichitisgroundedisonealmostirrelevantto

politicaleconomy。

ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy

byJohnStuartMill

Book1，Chapter3

OfUnproductiveLabour

1。Labourisindispensabletoproduction，buthasnotalways

productionforitseffect。Thereismuchlabour，andofahigh

orderofusefulness，ofwhichproductionisnottheobject。

LabourhasaccordinglybeendistinguishedintoProductiveand

Unproductive。Therehasbeennotalittlecontroversyamong

politicaleconomistsonthequestion，whatkindsoflabourshould

bereputedtobeunproductive;andtheyhavenotalways

perceived，thattherewasinrealitynomatteroffactindispute

betweenthem。

Manywritershavebeenunwillingtoclassanylabouras

productive，unlessitsresultispalpableinsomematerial

object，capableofbeingtransferredfromonepersontoanother。

Thereareothers（amongwhomareMr。M’CullochandM。Say）who

lookinguponthewordunproductiveasatermofdisparagement，

remonstrateagainstimposingituponanylabourwhichisregarded

asuseful—whichproducesabenefitorapleasureworththecost。

Thelabourofofficersofgovernment，ofthearmyandnavy，of

physicians，lawyers，teachers，musicians，dancers，actors，

domesticservants，&c。，whentheyreallyaccomplishwhattheyare

paidfor，andarenotmorenumerousthanisrequiredforits

performance，oughtnot，saythesewriters，tobe"stigmatized"as

unproductive，anexpressionwhichtheyappeartoregardas

synonymouswithwastefulorworthless。Butthisseemstobea

misunderstandingofthematterindispute。Productionnotbeing

thesoleendofhumanexistence，thetermunproductivedoesnot

necessarilyimplyanystigma;norwaseverintendedtodosoin

thepresentcase。Thequestionisoneofmerelanguageand

classification。Differencesoflanguage，however，arebynomeans

unimportant，evenwhennotgroundedondifferencesofopinion;

forthougheitheroftwoexpressionsmaybeconsistentwiththe

wholetruth，theygenerallytendtofixattentionupondifferent

partsofit。Wemustthereforeenteralittleintothe

considerationofthevariousmeaningswhichmayattachtothe

wordsproductiveandunproductivewhenappliedtolabour。

Inthefirstplace，eveninwhatiscalledtheproductionof

materialobjects，itmustberememberedthatwhatisproducedis

notthemattercomposingthem。Allthelabourofallthehuman

beingsintheworldcouldnotproduceoneparticleofmatter。To

weavebroadclothisbuttorearrange，inapeculiarmanner，the

particlesofwool;togrowcornisonlytoputaportionof

mattercalledaseed，intoasituationwhereitcandrawtogether

particlesofmatterfromtheearthandair，toformthenew

combinationcalledaplant。Thoughwecannotcreatematter，we

cancauseittoassumeproperties，bywhich，fromhavingbeen

uselesstous，itbecomesuseful。Whatweproduce，ordesireto

produce，isalways，asM。Sayrightlytermsit，anutility。

Labourisnotcreativeofobjects，butofutilities。Neither，

again，doweconsumeanddestroytheobjectsthemselves;the

matterofwhichtheywerecomposedremains，moreorlessaltered

inform:whathasreallybeenconsumedisonlythequalitiesby

whichtheywerefittedforthepurposetheyhavebeenappliedto。

Itis，therefore，pertinentlyaskedbyM。Sayandothers—since，

whenwearesaidtoproduceobjects，weonlyproduceutility，why

shouldnotalllabourwhichproducesutilitybeaccounted

productive？Whyrefusethattitletothesurgeonwhosetsalimb，

thejudgeorlegislatorwhoconferssecurity，andgiveittothe

lapidarywhocutsandpolishesadiamond？Whydenyittothe

teacherfromwhomIlearnanartbywhichIcangainmybread，

andaccordittotheconfectionerwhomakesbonbonsforthe

momentarypleasureofasenseoftaste。

Itisquitetruethatallthesekindsoflabourare

productiveofutility;anthequestionwhichnowoccupiesus

couldnothavebeenaquestionatall，iftheproductionof

utilitywereenoughtosatisfythenotionwhichmankindhave

usuallyformedofproductivelabour。Production，andproductive，

areofcourseellipticalexpressions，involvingtheideaofa

somethingproduced;butthissomething，incommonapprehension，I

conceivetobe，notutility，butWealth。Productivelabourmeans

labourproductiveofwealth。Wearerecalled，therefore，tothe

questiontoucheduponinourfirstchapter，whatWealthis，and

whetheronlymaterialproducts，orallusefulproducts，aretobe

includedinit。

2。Nowtheutilitiesproducedbylabourareofthreekinds。

Theyare，

First，utilitiesfixedandembodiedinoutwardobjects;by

labouremployedininvestingexternalmaterialthingswith

propertieswhichrenderthemserviceabletohumanbeings。Thisis

thecommoncase，andrequiresnoillustration。

Secondly，utilitiesfixedandembodiedinhumanbeings;the

labourbeinginthiscaseemployedinconferringonhumanbeings，

qualitieswhichrenderthemserviceabletothemselvesandothers。

Tothisclassbelongsthelabourofallconcernedineducation;

notonlyschoolmasters，tutors，andprofessors，butgovernments，

sofarastheyaimsuccessfullyattheimprovementofthepeople;

moralists，andclergymen，asfarasproductiveofbenefit;the

labourofphysicians，asfarasinstrumentalinpreservinglife

andphysicalormentalefficiency;oftheteachersofbodily

exercises，andofthevarioustrades，sciences，andarts，

togetherwiththelabourofthelearnersinacquiringthem;and

alllabourbestowedbyanypersons，throughoutlife，inimproving

theknowledgeorcultivatingthebodilyormentalfacultiesof

themselvesorothers。

Thirdlyandlastly，utilitiesnotfixedorembodiedinany

object，butconsistinginamereservicerendered;apleasure

given，aninconvenienceorapainaverted，duringalongerora

shortertime，butwithoutleavingapermanentacquisitioninthe

improvedqualitiesofanypersonorthing;thelabourbeing

employedinproducinganutilitydirectly，not（asinthetwo

formercases）infittingsomeotherthingtoaffordanutility。

Such，forexample，isthelabourofthemusicalperformer，the

actor，thepublicdeclaimerorreciter，andtheshowman。Some

goodmaynodoubtbeproduced，andmuchmoremightbeproduced，

beyondthemoment，uponthefeelingsanddisposition，orgeneral

stateofenjoymentofthespectators;orinsteadofgoodthere

maybeharm;butneithertheonenortheotheristheeffect

intended，istheresultforwhichtheexhibitorworksandthe

spectatorpays;nothingbuttheimmediatepleasure。Such，again，

isthelabourofthearmyandnavy;they，atthebest，preventa

countryfrombeingconquered，orfrombeinginjuredorinsulted，

whichisaservice，butinallotherrespectsleavethecountry

neitherimprovednordeteriorated。Such，too，isthelabourof

thelegislator，thejudge，theofficerofjustice，andallother

agentsofgovernment，intheirordinaryfunctions，apartfromany

influencetheymayexertontheimprovementofthenationalmind。

Theservicewhichtheyrender，istomaintainpeaceandsecurity;

thesecomposetheutilitywhichtheyproduce。Itmayappearto

some，thatcarriers，andmerchantsordealers，shouldbeplaced

inthissameclass，sincetheirlabourdoesnotaddany

propertiestoobjects:butIreplythatitdoes:itaddsthe

propertyofbeingintheplacewheretheyarewanted，insteadof

beinginsomeotherplace:whichisaveryusefulproperty，and

theutilityitconfersisembodiedinthethingsthemselves，

whichnowactuallyareintheplacewheretheyarerequiredfor

use，andinconsequenceofthatincreasedutilitycouldbesold

atanincreasedprice，proportionedtothelabourexpendedin

conferringit。Thislabour，therefore，doesnotbelongtothe

thirdclass，buttothefirst。

3。Wehavenowtoconsiderwhichofthesethreeclassesof

labourshouldbeaccountedproductiveofwealth，sincethatis

whatthetermproductive，whenusedbyitself，mustbeunderstood

toimport。Utilitiesofthethirdclass，consistinginpleasures

whichonlyexistwhilebeingenjoyed，andserviceswhichonly

existwhilebeingperformed，cannotbespokenofaswealth，

exceptbyanacknowledgedmetaphor。Itisessentialtotheidea

ofwealthtobesusceptibleofaccumulation:thingwhichcannot，

afterbeingproduced，bekeptforsometimebeforebeingused，

arenever，Ithink，regardedaswealth，sincehowevermuchof

themmaybeproducedandenjoyed，thepersonbenefitedbythemis

noricher，isnowiseimprovedincircumstances。Butthereisnot

sodistinctandpositiveaviolationofusageinconsideringas

wealthanyproductwhichisbothusefulandsusceptibleof

accumulation。Theskill，andtheenergyandperseverance，ofthe

artisansofacountry，arereckonedpartofitswealth，noless

thantheirtoolsandmachinery。（1*）Accordingtothisdefinition，

weshouldregardalllabourasproductivewhichisemployedin

creatingpermanentutilities，whetherembodiedinhumanbeings，

orinanyotheranimateorinanimateobjects。ThisnomenclatureI

have，inaformerpublication，（2*）recommended，asmostconducive

totheendsofclassification;andIamstillofthatopinion。

Butinapplyingthetermwealthtotheindustrialcapacities

ofhumanbeing，thereseemsalways，inpopularapprehension，to

beatacitreferencetomaterialproducts。Theskillofan

artisanisaccountedwealth，onlyasbeingthemeansofacquiring

wealthinamaterialsense;andanyqualitiesnottendingvisibly

tothatobjectarescarcelysoregardedatall。Acountrywould

hardlybesaidtobericher，exceptbyametaphor，however

preciousapossessionitmighthaveinthegenius，thevirtues，

ortheaccomplishmentsofitsinhabitants;unlessindeedthese

werelookeduponasmarketablearticles，bywhichitcould

attractthematerialwealthofothercountries，astheGreeksof

old，andseveralmodernnationshavedone。While，therefore，I

shouldprefer，wereIconstructinganewtechnicallanguage，to

makethedistinctionturnuponthepermanenceratherthanupon

thematerialityoftheproduct，yetwhenemployingtermswhich

commonusagehastakencompletepossessionof，itseemsadvisable

sotoemploythemastodotheleastpossibleviolencetousage;

sinceanyimprovementinterminologyobtainedbystrainingthe

receivedmeaningofapopularphrase，isgenerallypurchased

beyonditsvalue，bytheobscurityarisingfromtheconflict

betweennewandoldassociations。

Ishall，therefore，inthistreatise，whenspeakingof

wealth，understandbyitonlywhatiscalledmaterialwealth，and

byproductivelabouronlythosekindsofexertionwhichproduce

utilitiesembodiedinmaterialobjects。Butinlimitingmyselfto

thissenseoftheword，Imeantoavailmyselfofthefullextent

ofthatrestrictedacceptation，andIshallnotrefusethe

appellationproductive，tolabourwhichyieldsnomaterial

productasitsdirectresult，providedthatanincreaseof

materialproductsisitsultimateconsequence。Thus，labour

expendedintheacquisitionofmanufacturingskill，Iclassas

productive，notinvirtueoftheskillitself，butofthe

manufacturedproductscreatedbytheskill，andtothecreation

ofwhichthelabouroflearningthetradeisessentially

conducive。Thelabourofofficersofgovernmentinaffordingthe

protectionwhich，affordedinsomemannerorother，is

indispensabletotheprosperityofindustry，mustbeclassedas

productiveevenofmaterialwealth，becausewithoutit，material

wealth，inanythinglikeitspresentabundance，couldnotexist。

Suchlabourmaybesaidtobeproductiveindirectlyormediately，

inoppositiontothelabouroftheploughmanandthe

cotton—spinner，whichareproductiveimmediately。Theyareall

alikeinthis，thattheyleavethecommunityricherinmaterial

productsthantheyfoundit;theyincrease，ortendtoincrease，

materialwealth。

4。ByUnproductiveLabour，onthecontrary，willbe

understoodlabourwhichdoesnotterminateinthecreationof

materialwealth;which，howeverlargelyorsuccessfully

practised，doesnotrenderthecommunity，andtheworldatlarge，

richerinmaterialproducts，butpoorerbyallthatisconsumed

bythelabourerswhilesoemployed。

Alllabouris，inthelanguageofpoliticaleconomy，

unproductive，whichendsinimmediateenjoyment，withoutany

increaseoftheaccumulatedstockofpermanentmeansof

enjoyment。Andalllabour，accordingtoourpresentdefinition，

mustbeclassedasunproductive，whichterminatesinapermanent

benefit，howeverimportant，providedthatanincreaseofmaterial

productsformsnopartofthatbenefit。Thelabourofsavinga

friend’slifeisnotproductive，unlessthefriendisa

productivelabourer，andproducesmorethanheconsumes。Toa

religiouspersonthesavingofasoulmustappearafarmore

importantservicethanthesavingofalife;buthewillnot

thereforecallamissionaryoraclergymanproductivelabourers，

unlesstheyteach，astheSouthSeaMissionarieshaveinsome

casesdone，theartsofcivilizationinadditiontothedoctrines

oftheirreligion。Itis，onthecontrary，evidentthatthe

greaternumberofmissionariesorclergymenanationmaintains，

thelessithastoexpendonotherthings;whilethemoreit

expendsjudiciouslyinkeepingagriculturistsandmanufacturers

atwork，themoreitwillhaveforeveryotherpurpose。Bythe

formeritdiminishes，caeterisparibus，itsstockofmaterial

products;bythelatter，itincreasesthem。

Unproductivemaybeasusefulasproductivelabour;itmaybe

moreuseful，eveninpointofpermanentadvantage;oritsusemay

consistonlyinpleasurablesensation，whichwhengoneleavesno

trace;oritmaynotaffordeventhis，butmaybeabsolutewaste。

Inanycasesocietyormankindgrownoricherbyit，butpoorer。

Allmaterialproductsconsumedbyanyonewhileheproduces

nothing，aresomuchsubtracted，forthetime，fromthematerial

productswhichsocietywouldotherwisehavepossessed。Butthough

societygrowsnoricherbyunproductivelabour，theindividual

may。Anunproductivelabourermayreceiveforhislabour，from

thosewhoderivepleasureorbenefitfromit，aremuneration

whichmaybetohimaconsiderablesourceofwealth;buthisgain

isbalancedbytheirloss;theymayhavereceivedafull

equivalentfortheirexpenditure，buttheyaresomuchpoorerby

it。Whenatailormakesacoatandsellsit，thereisatransfer

ofthepricefromthecustomertothetailor，andacoatbesides

whichdidnotpreviouslyexist;butwhatisgainedbyanactoris

ameretransferfromthespectator’sfundstohis，leavingno

articleofwealthforthespectator’sindemnification。Thusthe

communitycollectivelygainsnothingbytheactor’slabour;and

itloses，ofhisreceipts，allthatportionwhichheconsumes，

retainingonlythatwhichhelaysby。Acommunity，however，may

addtoitswealthbyunproductivelabour，attheexpenseofother

communities，asanindividualmayattheexpenseofother

individuals。ThegainsofItalianoperasingers，German

governesses，Frenchballetdancers，&c。，areasourceofwealth，

asfarastheygo，totheirrespectivecountries，iftheyreturn

thither。ThepettystatesofGreece，especiallytheruderand

morebackwardofthosestates，werenurseriesofsoldiers，who

hiredthemselvestotheprincesandsatrapsoftheEasttocarry

onuselessanddestructivewars，andreturnedwiththeirsavings

topasstheirdecliningyearsintheirowncountry……thesewere

unproductivelabourers，andthepaytheyreceived，togetherwith

theplundertheytook，wasanoutlaywithoutreturntothe

countrieswhichfurnishedit;but，thoughnogaintotheworld，

itwasagaintoGreece。Atalaterperiodthesamecountryand

itscoloniessuppliedtheRomanempirewithanotherclassof

adventurers，who，underthenameofphilosophersorof

rhetoricians，taughttotheyouthofthehigherclasseswhatwere

esteemedthemostvaluableaccomplishments:theseweremainly

unproductivelabourers，buttheiramplerecompensewasasource

ofwealthtotheirowncountry。Innoneofthesecaseswasthere

anyaccessionofwealthtotheworld。Theservicesofthe

labourers，ifuseful，wereobtainedatasacrificetotheworld

ofaportionofmaterialwealth;ifuseless，allthatthese

labourersconsumedwastotheworldwaste。

Tobewasted，however，isaliabilitynotconfinedto

unproductivelabour。Productivelabourmayequallybewasted，if

moreofitisexpendedthanreallyconducestoproduction。If

defectofskillinlabourers，orofjudgmentinthosewhodirect

them，causesamisapplicationofproductiveindustry;ifafarmer

persistsinploughingwiththreehorsesandtwomen，when

experiencehasshownthattwohorseandonemanaresufficient，

thesurpluslabour，thoughemployedforpurposesofproduction，

iswasted。Ifanewprocessisadoptedwhichprovesnobetter，or

notsogoodasthosebeforeinuse，thelabourexpendedin

perfectingtheinventionandincarryingitintopractice，though

employedforaproductivepurpose，iswasted。Productivelabour

mayrenderanationpoorer，ifthewealthitproduces，thatis，

theincreaseitmakesinthestockofusefuloragreeablethings，

beofakindnotimmediatelywanted:aswhenacommodityis

unsaleable，becauseproducedinaquantitybeyondthepresent

demand;orwhenspeculatorsbuilddocksandwarehousesbefore

thereisanytrade。SomeoftheStatesofNorthAmerica，by

makingprematurerailwaysandcanals，arethoughttohavemade

thiskindofmistake;anditwasforsometimedoubtfulwhether

England，inthedisproportionatedevelopmentofrailway

enterprise，hadnot，insomedegree，followedtheexample。Labour

sunkinexpectationofadistantreturn，whenthegreat

exigenciesorlimitedresourcesofthecommunityrequirethatthe

returnberapid，mayleavethecountrynotonlypoorerinthe

meanwhile，byallwhichthoselabourersconsume，butlessrich

evenultimatelythanifimmediatereturnshadbeensoughtinthe

firstinstance，andenterprisesfordistantprofitpostponed。

5。ThedistinctionofProductiveandUnproductiveis

applicabletoconsumptionaswellastolabour。Allthemembers

ofthecommunityarenotlabourers，hutallareconsumers，and

consumeeitherunproductivelyorproductively。Whoever

contributesnothingdirectlyorindirectlytoproduction，isan

unproductiveconsumer。Theonlyproductiveconsumersare

productivelabourers;thelabourofdirectionbeingofcourse

included，aswellasthatofexecution。Buttheconsumptioneven

ofproductivelabourersisnotallofitproductiveconsumption。

Thereisunproductiveconsumptionbyproductiveconsumers。What

theyconsumeinkeepinguporimprovingtheirhealth，strength，

andcapacitiesofwork，orinrearingotherproductivelabourers

tosucceedthem，isproductiveconsumption。Butconsumptionon

pleasuresorluxuries，whetherbytheidleorbytheindustrious，

sinceproductionisneitheritsobjectnorisinanywayadvanced

byit，mustbereckonedunproductive:withareservationperhaps

ofacertainquantumofenjoymentwhichmaybeclassedamong

necessaries，sinceanythingshortofitwouldnotbeconsistent

withthegreatestefficiencyoflabour。Thataloneisproductive

consumption，whichgoestomaintainandincreasetheproductive

powersofthecommunity;eitherthoseresidinginitssoil，in

itsmaterials，inthenumberandefficiencyofitsinstrumentsof

production，orinitspeople。

Therearenumerousproductswhichmaybesaidnottoadmitof

beingconsumedotherwisethanunproductively。Theannual

consumptionofgoldlace，pineapples，orchampagne，mustbe

reckonedunproductive，sincethesethingsgivenoassistanceto

production，noranysupporttolifeorstrength，butwhatwould

equallybegivenbythingsmuchlesscostly。Henceitmightbe

supposedthatthelabouremployedinproducingthemoughtnotto

beregardedasproductive，inthesenseinwhichthetermis

understoodbypoliticaleconomists。Igrantthatnolabourtends

tothepermanentenrichmentofsociety，whichisemployedin

producingthingsfortheuseofunproductiveconsumers。The

tailorwhomakesacoatforamanwhoproducesnothing，isa

productivelabourer;butinafewweeksormonthsthecoatis

wornout，whilethewearerhasnotproducedanythingtoreplace

it，andthecommunityisthennoricherbythelabourofthe

tailor，thanifthesamesumhadbeenpaidforastallatthe

opera。Nevertheless，societyhasbeenricherbythelabourwhile

thecoatlasted，thatis，untilsociety，throughoneofits

unproductivemembers，chosetoconsumetheproduceofthelabour

unproductively。Thecaseofthegoldlaceorthepineappleisno

furtherdifferent，thanthattheyarestillfurtherremovedthan

thecoatfromthecharacterofnecessaries。Thesethingsalsoare

wealthuntiltheyhavebeenconsumed。

6。Wesee，however，bythis，thatthereisadistinction，

moreimportanttothewealthofacommunitythaneventhat

betweenproductiveandunproductivelabour;thedistinction，

namely，betweenlabourforthesupplyofproductive，andforthe

supplyofunproductive，consumption;betweenlabouremployedin

keepinguporinaddingtotheproductiveresourcesofthe

country，andthatwhichisemployedotherwise。Oftheproduceof

thecountry，apartonlyisdestinedtobeconsumedproductively;

theremaindersuppliestheunproductiveconsumptionofproducers，

andtheentireconsumptionoftheunproductiveclasses。Suppose

thattheproportionoftheannualproduceappliedtothefirst

purposeamountstohalf;thenone—halftheproductivelabourers

ofthecountryareallthatareemployedintheoperationson

whichthepermanentwealthofthecountrydepends。Theotherhalf

areoccupiedfromyeartoyearandfromgenerationtogeneration

inproducingthingswhichareconsumedanddisappearwithout

return;andwhateverthishalfconsumeisascompletelylost，as

toanypermanenteffectonthenationalresources，asifitwere

consumedunproductively。Supposethatthissecondhalfofthe

labouringpopulationceasedtowork，andthatthegovernmentor

theirparishesmaintainedtheminidlenessforawholeyear:the

firsthalfwouldsufficetoproduce，astheyhaddonebefore，

theirownnecessariesandthenecessariesofthesecondhalf，and

tokeepthestockofmaterialsandimplementsundiminished:the

unproductiveclasses，indeed，wouldbeeitherstaredorobliged

toproducetheirownsubsistence，andthewholecommunitywould

bereducedduringayeartobarenecessaries;butthesourcesof

productionwouldbeunimpaired，andthenextyeartherewouldnot

necessarilybeasmallerproducethanifnosuchintervalof

inactivityhadoccurred;whileifthecasehadbeenreversed，if

thefirsthalfofthelabourershadsuspendedtheiraccustomed

occupations，andthesecondhalfhadcontinuedtheirs，the

countryattheendofthetwelvemonthwouldhavebeenentirely

impoverished。

Itwouldbeagreaterrortoregretthelargeproportionof

theannualproduce，whichinanopulentcountrygoestosupply

unproductiveconsumption。Itwouldbetolamentthatthe

communityhassomuchtosparefromitsnecessities，forits

pleasuresandforallhigheruses。Thisportionoftheproduceis

thefundfromwhichallthewantsofthecommunity，otherthan

thatofmereliving，areprovidedfor;themeasureofitsmeans

ofenjoyment，andofitspowerofaccomplishingallpurposesnot

productive。Thatsogreatasurplusshouldbeavailableforsuch

purposes，andthatitshouldbeappliedtothem，canonlybea

subjectofcongratulation。Thethingstoberegretted，andwhich

arenotincapableofbeingremedied，aretheprodigious

inequalitywithwhichthissurplusisdistributed，thelittle

worthoftheobjectstowhichthegreaterpartofitisdevoted，

andthelargesharewhichfallstothelotofpersonswhorender

noequivalentserviceinreturn。

NOTES:

1。Someauthoritieslookuponitasanessentialelementinthe

ideaofwealth，thatitshouldbecapablenotsolelyofbeing

accumulatedbutofbeingtransferred;andinasmuchasthe

valuablequalities，andeventheproductivecapacities，ofa

humanbeing，cannotbedetachedfromhimandpassedtosomeone

else，theydenytothesetheappellationofwealth，andtothe

labourexpendedinacquiringthemthenameofproductivelabour。

Itseemstome，however，thattheskillofanartisan（for

instance）beingbothadesirablepossession，andoneofacertain

durability（nottosayproductiveevenofnationalwealth），there

isnobetterreasonforrefusingtoitthetitleofwealth

becauseitisattachedtoaman，thantoacoalpitormanufactory

becausetheyareattachedtoaplace。Besides，iftheskill

itselfcannotbepartedwithtoapurchaser，theuseofitmay;

ifitcannotbesold，itcanbehired;anditmaybe，andis，

soldoutrightinallcountrieswhoselawspermitthattheman

himselfshouldbesoldalongwithit。Itsdefectof

transferabilitydoesnotresultfromanaturalbutfromalegal

andmoralobstacle。Thehumanbeinghimself（asformerly

observed）Idonotclassaswealth。Heisthepurposeforwhich

wealthexists。Buthisacquiredcapacities，whichexistonlyas

means，andhavebeencalledintoexistencebylabour，fall

rightly，asitseemstome，withinthatdesignation。

2。EssaysonsomeUnsettledQuestionsofPoliticalEconomy。Essay

III。OnthewordsProductiveandUnproductive。

ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy

byJohnStuartMill

Book1，Chapter4

OfCapital

1。Ithasbeenseenintheprecedingchaptersthatbesides

theprimaryanduniversalrequisitesofproduction，labourand

naturalagents，thereisanotherrequisitewithoutwhichno

productiveoperations，beyondtherudeandscantybeginningsof

primitiveindustry，arepossible:namely，astock，previously

accumulated，oftheproductsofformerlabour。Thisaccumulated

stockoftheproduceoflabouristermedCapital。Thefunctionof

Capitalinproduction，itisoftheutmostimportancethoroughly

tounderstand，sinceanumberoftheerroneousnotionswithwhich

oursubjectisinfested，originateinanimperfectandconfused

apprehensionofthispoint。

Capital，bypersonswhollyunusedtoreflectonthesubject，

issupposedtobesynonymouswithmoney。Toexposethis

misapprehension，wouldbetorepeatwhathasbeensaidinthe

introductorychapter。Moneyisnomoresynonymouswithcapital

thanitiswithwealth。Moneycannotinitselfperformanypart

oftheofficeofcapital，sinceitcanaffordnoassistanceto

production。Todothis，itmustbeexchangedforotherthings;

andanything，whichissusceptibleofbeingexchangedforother

things，iscapableofcontributingtoproductioninthesame

degree。Whatcapitaldoesforproduction，istoaffordthe

shelter，protection，toolsandmaterialswhichtheworkrequires，

andtofeedandotherwisemaintainthelabourersduringthe

process。Thesearetheserviceswhichpresentlabourrequires

frompast，andfromtheproduceofpast，labour。Whateverthings

aredestinedforthisuse——destinedtosupplyproductivelabour

withthesevariousprerequisites——areCapital。

Tofamiliarizeourselveswiththeconception，letusconsider

whatisdonewiththecapitalinvestedinanyofthebranchesof

businesswhichcomposetheproductiveindustryofacountry。A

manufacturer，forexample，hasonepartofhiscapitalinthe

formofbuildings，fittedanddestinedforcarryingonhisbranch

ofmanufacture。Anotherparthehasintheformofmachinery。A

thirdconsists，ifhebeaspinner，ofrawcotton，flax，orwool;

ifaweaver，offlaxen，woollen，silk，orcotton，thread;andthe

like，accordingtothenatureofthemanufacture。Foodand

clothingforhisoperatives，itisnotthecustomofthepresent

agethatheshoulddirectlyprovide;andfewcapitalists，except

theproducersoffoodorclothing，haveanyportionworth

mentioningoftheircapitalinthatshape。Insteadofthis，each

capitalisthasmoney，whichhepaystohisworkpeople，andso

enablesthemtosupplythemselves:hehasalsofinishedgoodsin

hiswarehouses，bythesaleofwhichheobtainsmoremoney，to

employinthesamemanner，aswellastoreplenishhisstockof

materials，tokeephisbuildingsandmachineryinrepair，andto

replacethemwhenwornout。Hismoneyandfinishedgoods，

however，arenotwhollycapital，forhedoesnotwhollydevote

themtothesepurposes:heemploysapartoftheone，andofthe

proceedsoftheother，insupplyinghispersonalconsumptionand

thatofhisfamily，orinhiringgroomsandvalets，or

maintaininghuntersandhounds，orineducatinghischildren，or

inpayingtaxes，orincharity。Whatthenishiscapital？

Preciselythatpartofhispossessions，whateveritbe，whichis

toconstitutehisfundforcarryingonfreshproduction。Itisof

noconsequencethatapart，oreventhewholeofit，isinaform

inwhichitcannotdirectlysupplythewantsoflabourers。

Suppose，forinstance，thatthecapitalistisahardware

manufacturer，andthathisstockintrade，overandabovehis

machinery，consistsatpresentwhollyinirongoods。Irongoods

cannotfeedlabourers。Nevertheless，byamerechangeofthe

destinationoftheseirongoods，hecancauselabourerstobe

fed。Supposethatwithaportionoftheproceedsheintendedto

maintainapackofhounds，oranestablishmentofservants;and

thathechangeshisintention，andemploysitinhisbusiness，

payingitinwagestoadditionalworkpeople。Theseworkpeopleare

enabledtobuyandconsumethefoodwhichwouldotherwisehave

beenconsumedbythehoundsorbytheservants;andthuswithout

theemployer’shavingseenortouchedoneparticleofthefood，

hisconducthasdeterminedthatsomuchmoreofthefoodexisting

inthecountryhasbeendevotedtotheuseofproductive

labourers，andsomuchlessconsumedinamannerwholly

unproductive。Nowvarythehypothesis，andsupposethatwhatis

thuspaidinwageswouldotherwisehavebeenlaidoutnotin

feedingservantsorhounds，butinbuyingplateandjewels;and

inordertorendertheeffectperceptible，letussupposethat

thechangetakesplaceonaconsiderablescale，andthatalarge

sumisdivertedfrombuyingplateandjewelstoemploying

productivelabourers，whomweshallsupposetohavebeen

previously，liketheIrishpeasantry，onlyhalfemployedandhalf

fed。Thelabourers，onreceivingtheirincreasedwages，willnot

laythemoutinplateandjewels，butinfood。Thereisnot，

however，additionalfoodinthecountry;noranyunproductive

labourersoranimals，asintheformercase，whosefoodisset

freeforproductivepurposes。Foodwillthereforebeimportedif

possible;ifnotpossible，thelabourerswillremainforaseason

ontheirshortallowance:buttheconsequencesofthischangein

thedemandforcommodities，occasionedbythechangeinthe

expenditureofcapitalistsfromunproductivetoproductive，is

thatnextyearmorefoodwillbeproduced，andlessplateand

jewellery。Sothatagain，withouthavinghadanythingtodowith

thefoodofthelabourersdirectly，theconversionbyindividuals

ofaportionoftheirproperty，nomatterofwhatsort，froman

unproductivedestinationtoaproductive，hashadtheeffectof

causingmorefoodtobeappropriatedtotheconsumptionof

productivelabourers。Thedistinction，then，betweenCapitaland

Not—capital，doesnotlieinthekindofcommodities，butinthe

mindofthecapitalist——inhiswilltoemploythemforone

purposeratherthananother;andallproperty，howeverill

adaptedinitselffortheuseoflabourers，isapartofcapital，

sosoonasit，orthevaluetobereceivedfromit，issetapart

forproductivereinvestment。Thesumofallthevaluesso

destinedbytheirrespectivepossessors，composesthecapitalof

thecountry。Whetherallthosevaluesareinashapedirectly

applicabletoproductiveuses，makesnodifference。Theirshape，

whateveritmaybe，isatemporaryaccident:butoncedestined

forproduction，theydonotfailtofindawayoftransforming

themselvesintothingscapableofbeingappliedtoit。

2。Aswhateveroftheproduceofthecountryisdevotedto

productioniscapital，so，conversely，thewholeofthecapital

ofthecountryisdevotedtoproduction。Thissecondproposition，

however，mustbetakenwithsomelimitationsandexplanations。A

fundmaybeseekingforproductiveemployment，andfindnone，

adaptedtotheinclinationsofitspossessor:ittheniscapital

still，butunemployedcapital。Orthestockmayconsistofunsold

goods，notsusceptibleofdirectapplicationtoproductiveuses，

andnot，atthemoment，marketable:these，untilsold，areinthe

conditionofunemployedcapital。Again，artificialoraccidental

circumstancesmayrenderitnecessarytopossessalargerstock

inadvance，thatis，alargercapitalbeforeenteringon

production，thanisrequiredbythenatureofthings。Suppose

thatthegovernmentlaysataxontheproductioninoneofits

earlierstages，asforinstancebytaxingthematerial。The

manufacturerhastoadvancethetax，beforecommencingthe

manufacture，andisthereforeunderanecessityofhavinga

largeraccumulatedfundthanisrequiredfor，orisactually

employedin，theproductionwhichhecarrieson。Hemusthavea

largercapital，tomaintainthesamequantityofproductive

labour;or（whatisequivalent）withagivencapitalhemaintains

lesslabour。Thismodeoflevyingtaxes，therefore，limits

unnecessarilytheindustryofthecountry:aportionofthefund

destinedbyitsownersforproductionbeingdivertedfromits

purpose，andkeptinaconstantstateofadvancetothe

government。

Foranotherexample:afarmermayenteronhisfarmatsucha

timeoftheyea，thathemayberequiredtopayone，two，oreven

threequarters’rentbeforeobtaininganyreturnfromthe

produce。This，therefore，musthepaidoutofhiscapital。Now

rent，whenpaidforthelanditself，andnotforimprovements

madeinitbylabour，isnotaproductiveexpenditure。Itisnot

anoutlayforthesupportoflabour，orfortheprovisionof

implementsormaterialstheproduceoflabour。Itistheprice

paidfortheuseofanappropriatednaturalagent。Thisnatural

agentisindeedasindispensable（andevenmoreso）asany

implement:butthehavingtopayapriceforit，isnot。Inthe

caseoftheimplement（athingproducedbylabour）apriceof

somesortisthenecessaryconditionofitsexistence:butthe

landexistsbynature。Thepaymentforit，therefore，isnotone

oftheexpensesofproduction;andthenecessityofmakingthe

paymentoutofcapital，makesitrequisitethatthereshouldbea

greatercapital，agreaterantecedentaccumulationoftheproduce

ofpastlabour，thanisnaturallynecessary，orthanisneeded

wherelandisoccupiedonadifferentsystem。Thisextracapital，

thoughintendedbyitsownersforproduction，isinreality

employedunproductively，andannuallyreplaced，notfromany

produceofitsown，butfromtheproduceofthelaboursupported

bytheremainderofthefarmer’scapital。

Finally，thatlargeportionoftheproductivecapitalofa

countrywhichisemployedinpayingthewagesandsalariesof

labourers，evidentlyisnot，allofit，strictlyand

indispensablynecessaryforproduction。Asmuchofitasexceeds

theactualnecessariesoflifeandhealth（anexcesswhichinthe

caseofskilledlabourersisusuallyconsiderable）isnot

expendedinsupportinglabour，butinremuneratingit，andthe

labourerscouldwaitforthispartoftheirremunerationuntil

theproductioniscompleted;itneedsnotnecessarilypre—exist

ascapital:andiftheyunfortunatelyhadtoforegoit

altogether，thesameamountofproductionmighttakeplace。In

orderthatthewholeremunerationofthelabourersshouldbe

advancedtothemindailyorweeklypayments，theremustexistin

advance，andbeappropriatedtoproductiveuse，agreaterstock，

orcapital，thanwouldsufficetocarryontheexistingextentof

production:greater，bywhateveramountofremunerationthe

labourersreceive，beyondwhattheself—interestofaprudent

slave—masterwouldassigntohisslaves。Intruth，itisonly

afteranabundantcapitalhadalreadybeenaccumulated，thatthe

practiceofpayinginadvanceanyremunerationoflabourbeyonda

baresubsistence，couldpossiblyhavearisen:sincewhateveris

sopaid，isnotreallyappliedtoproduction，buttothe

unproductiveconsumptionofproductivelabourers，indicatinga

fundforproductionsufficientlyampletoadmitofhabitually

divertingapartofittoamereconvenience。

ItwillbeobservedthatIhaveassumed，thatthelabourers

arealwayssubsistedfromcapital:andthisisobviouslythe

fact，thoughthecapitalneedsnotnecessarilybefurnishedbya

personcalledacapitalist。Whenthelabourermaintainshimself

byfundsofhisown，aswhenapeasant—farmerorproprietorlives

ontheproduceofhisland，oranartisanworksonhisown

account，theyarestillsupportedbycapital，thatis，byfunds

providedinadvance。Thepeasantdoesnotsubsistthisyearon

theproduceofthisyear’sharvest，butonthatofthelast。The

artisanisnotlivingontheproceedsoftheworkhehasinhand，

butonthoseofworkpreviouslyexecutedanddisposedof。Eachis

supportedbyasmallcapitalofhisown，whichheperiodically

replacesfromtheproduceofhislabour。Thelargecapitalistis，

inlikemanner，maintainedfromfundsprovidedinadvance。Ifhe

personallyconductshisoperations，asmuchofhispersonalor

householdexpenditureasdoesnotexceedafairremunerationof

hislabouratthemarketprice，mustbeconsideredapartofhis

capital，expended，likeanyothercapital，forproduction:and

hispersonalconsumption，sofarasitconsistsofnecessaries，

isproductiveconsumption。

3。Attheriskofbeingtedious，Imustaddafewmore

illustrations，tobringoutintoastillclearerandstronger

lighttheideaofCapital。AsM。Saytrulyremarks，itisonthe

veryelementsofoursubjectthatillustrationismostusefully

bestowed，sincethegreatesterrorswhichprevailinitmaybe

tracedtothewantofathoroughmasteryovertheelementary

ideas。Noristhissurprising:abranchmaybediseasedandall

theresthealthy，butunsoundnessattherootdiffuses

unhealthinessthroughthewholetree。

Letusthereforeconsiderwhether，andinwhatcases，the

propertyofthosewholiveontheinterestofwhattheypossess，

withoutbeingpersonallyengagedinproduction，canberegarded

ascapital。Itissocalledincommonlanguage，and，with

referencetotheindividual，notimproperly。Allfundsfromwhich

thepossessorderivesanincome，whichincomehecanusewithout

sinkinganddissipatingthefunditself，aretohimequivalentto

capital。Buttotransferhastilyandinconsideratelytothe

generalpointofview，propositionswhicharetrueofthe

individual，hasbeenasourceofinnumerableerrorsinpolitical

economy。Inthepresentinstance，thatwhichisvirtuallycapital

totheindividual，isorisnotcapitaltothenation，according

asthefundwhichbythesuppositionhehasnotdissipated，has

orhasnotbeendissipatedbysomebodyelse。

Forexample，letpropertyofthevalueoftenthousandpounds

belongingtoA，belenttoB，afarmerormanufacturer，and

employedprofitablyinB’soccupation。Itisasmuchcapitalas

ifitbelongedtoB。Aisreallyafarmerormanufacturer，not

personally，butinrespectofhisproperty。Capitalworthten

thousandpoundsisemployedinproduction——inmaintaining

labourersandprovidingtoolsandmaterials;whichcapital

belongstoA，whileBtakesthetroubleofemployingit，and

receivesforhisremunerationthedifferencebetweentheprofit

whichityieldsandtheinteresthepaystoA。Thisisthe

simplestcase。