ToolsandcivilizationThebeginningsoftoolsDexterityofhandchieflyreliedonOppositiontomanufacturingmachinesGradualprocessofinventionThehumanracethetrueinventorObscureoriginofmanyinventionsInventionsbornbeforetheirtime”Nothingnewunderthesun”

ThepowerofsteamknowntotheancientsPassagefromRogerBaconOldinventionsrevivedPrintingAtmosphericlocomotionTheballoonThereapingmachineTunnelsGunpowderAncientfirearmsThesteamgunTheCongreverocketCoal-gasHydropathyAnaestheticagentsTheDaguerreotypeanticipatedTheelectrictelegraphnotnewForgotteninventorsDisputedinventionsSimultaneousinventionsInventionsmadestepbystepJamesWatt’sdifficultieswithhisworkmenImprovementsinmodernmachine-toolsTheirperfectionTheenginesof”TheWarrior”

CHAPTERXI。

JOSEPHBRAMAH。

TheinventivefacultyJosephBramah’searlylifeHisamateurworkApprenticedtoacarpenterStartsascabinet-makerinLondonTakesoutapatentforhiswater-closetMakespumpsandironworkInventionofhislockInventstoolsrequiredinlock-makingInventshishydrostaticmachineHishydraulicpressTheleatherncollarinventedbyHenryMaudslayBramah’sotherinventionsHisfire-engineHisbeer-pumpImprovementsinthesteam-engineHisimprovementsinmachine-toolsHisnumber-printingmachineHispen-cutterHishydraulicmachineryPractisesascivilengineerAltercationwithWilliamHuntington，”S。S。”

Bramah’scharacteranddeathCHAPTERXII。

HENRYMAUDSLAY。

TheMaudslaysHenryMaudslayEmployedaspowder-boyinWoolwichArsenalAdvancedtotheblacksmiths’shopHisearlydexterityinsmith-workHis”trivet”makingEmployedbyBramahProveshimselfafirst-classworkmanAdvancedtobeforemanoftheworksHisinventionsoftoolsrequiredforlock-makingHisinventionoftheleatherncollarinthehydraulicpressLeavesBramah’sserviceandbeginsbusinessforhimselfHisfirstsmithyinWellsStreetHisfirstjobInventionoftheslide-latheResumeofthehistoryoftheturning-latheImperfectionoftoolsaboutthemiddleoflastcenturyThehand-latheGreatadvantagesofthesliderestFirstextensivelyusedinconstructingBrunel’sBlockMachineryMemoirofBrunelManufactureofships’blocksSirS。Bentham’sspecificationsIntroductionofBruneltoMaudslayTheblock-machinerymade，anditssuccessIncreasedoperationsofthefirmImprovementsinthesteam-engineInventionofthepunching-machineFurtherimprovementsintheslide-latheScrew-cuttingmachineMaudslayadexterousandthoughtfulworkmanHischaracterdescribedbyhispupil，JamesNasmythAnecdotesandtraitsMaudslay’sworksafirst-classschoolforworkmenHismodeofestimatingcharacterHisdeathCHAPTERXIII。

JOSEPHCLEMENT。

SkillincontrivanceamatterofeducationBirthandparentageofJosephClementApprenticedtothetradeofaslaterHisskillinamateurworkMakesaturning-latheGivesupslating，andbecomesamechanicEmployedatKirbyStepheninmakingpower-loomsRemovestoCarlisleGlasgowPeterNicholsonteacheshimdrawingRemovestoAberdeenWorksasamechanicandattendsCollegeLondonEmployedbyAlexanderGallowayEmployedbyBramahAdvancedtobeforemanDraughtsmanatMaudslayandField’sBeginsbusinessonhisownaccountHisskillasamechanicaldraughtsmanInventshisdrawinginstrumentHisdrawing-tableHisimprovementsintheself-actinglatheHisdouble-drivingcentre-chuckandtwo-armeddriverHisflutedtapsanddiesInventionofhisPlaningMachineEmployedtomakeBabbage’sCalculatingMachineResumeofthehistoryofapparatusformakingcalculationsBabbage’sengineproceededwithItsgreatcostInterruptionoftheworkClement’ssteam-whistlesMakesanorganCharacteranddeathCHAPTERXIV。

FOXOFDERBY——MURRAYOFLEEDS——ROBERTSANDWHITWORTHOFMANCHESTER。

ThefirstFoxofDerbyoriginallyabutlerHisgeniusformechanicsBeginsbusinessasamachinistInventsaPlaningMachineMatthewMurray’sPlaningMachineMurray’searlycareerEmployedasablacksmithbyMarshallofLeedsHisimprovementsofflax-machineryImprovementsinsteam-enginesMakesthefirstworkinglocomotiveforMr。BlenkinsopInventstheHecklingMachineHisimprovementsintoolsRichardRobertsofManchesterFirstaquarryman，nextapattern-makerDrawnforthemilitia，andfliesHistravelsHisfirstemploymentatManchesterGoestoLondon，andworksatMaudslay’sRoberts’snumerousinventionsInventsaplaningmachineTheself-actingmuleIronbilliard-tablesImprovementsinthelocomotiveInventstheJacquardpunchingmachineMakesturret-clocksandelectro-magnetsImprovementinscrew-steamshipsMr。Whitworth’simprovementoftheplaningmachineHismethodofsecuringtruesurfacesHisgreatmechanicalskillCHAPTERXV。

JAMESNASMYTH。

TraditionaloriginoftheNaesmythsAlexanderNasmyththepainter，andhisfamilyEarlyyearsofJamesNasmythThestoryofhislifetoldbyhimselfBecomesapupilofHenryMaudslayHowhelivedandworkedinLondonBeginsbusinessatManchesterStoryoftheinventionoftheSteamHammerTheimportantusesoftheHammerinmodemengineeringInventsthesteampile-drivingmachineDesignsanewformofsteam-engineOtherinventionsHowhe”Scotched”astrikeUsesofstrikesRetirementfrombusinessSkillasadraughtsmanCuriousspeculationsonantiquariansubjectsMr。Nasmyth’swonderfuldiscoveriesinAstronomydescribedbySirJohnHerschelCHAPTERXVI。

WILLIAMFAIRBAIRN。

Summaryofprogressinmachine-toolsWilliamFairbairn’searlyyearsHiseducationLifeintheHighlandsBeginsworkatKelsoBridgeAnapprenticeatPercyMainColliery，NorthShieldsDiligentself-cultureVoyagetoLondonAdventuresPreventedobtainingworkbytheMillwrights’UnionTravelsintothecountry，findswork，andreturnstoLondonHisfirstorder，tomakeasausage-choppingmachineWanderschaftMakesnail-machineryforaDublinemployerProceedstoManchester，wherehesettlesandmarriesBeginsbusinessHisfirstjobPartnershipwithMr。LillieEmployedbyMessrs。AdamMurrayandCo。

EmployedbyMessrs。MacConnelandKennedyProgressoftheCottonTradeMemoirofJohnKennedyMr。Fairbairnintroducesgreatimprovementsinthegearing，&c。

ofmillmachineryIncreasingbusinessImprovementsinwater-wheelsExperimentsastothelawoftractionofboatsBeginsbuildingironshipsExperimentsonthestrengthofwroughtironBritanniaandConwayTubularBridgesReportsonironOnboilerexplosionsIronconstructionExtendeduseofironItsimportanceincivilizationOpinionofMr。CobdenImportanceofmodernmachine-toolsConclusionINDUSTRIALBIOGRAPHY。

CHAPTERI。

IRONANDCIVILIZATION。”Ironisnotonlythesoulofeveryothermanufacture，butthemainspringperhapsofcivilizedsociety。”——FRANCISHORNER。”Weretheuseofironlostamongus，weshouldinafewagesbeunavoidablyreducedtothewantsandignoranceoftheancientsavageAmericans；sothathewhofirstmadeknowntheuseofthatcontemptiblemineralmaybetrulystyledthefatherofArtsandtheauthorofPlenty。”——JOHNLOCKE。

WhenCaptainCookandtheearlynavigatorsfirstsailedintotheSouthSeasontheirvoyagesofdiscovery，oneofthethingsthatstruckthemwithmostsurprisewastheaviditywhichthenativesdisplayedforiron。”Nothingwouldgodownwithourvisitors，”saysCook，”butmetal；andironwastheirbelovedarticle。”Anailwouldbuyagood-sizedpig；andononeoccasionthenavigatorboughtsomefourhundredpoundsweightoffishforafewwretchedknivesimprovisedoutofanoldhoop。”Forirontools，”saysCaptainCarteret，”wemighthavepurchasedeverythingupontheFreewillIslandsthatwecouldhavebroughtaway。

Afewpiecesofoldironhooppresentedtooneofthenativesthrewhimintoanecstasylittleshortofdistraction。”AtOtaheitethepeoplewerefoundgenerallywell-behavedandhonest；buttheywerenotproofagainstthefascinationsofiron。CaptainCooksaysthatoneofthem，afterresistingallothertemptations，”wasatlengthensnaredbythecharmsofbasketofnails。”Anotherlurkedaboutforseveraldays，watchingtheopportunitytostealacoal-rake。

Thenavigatorsfoundtheycouldpaytheirwayfromislandtoislandmerelywithscrapsofiron，whichwereasusefulforthepurposeasgoldcoinswouldhavebeeninEurope。Thedrain，however，beingcontinuous，CaptainCookbecamealarmedatfindinghiscurrencyalmostexhausted；andherelateshisjoyonrecoveringanoldanchorwhichtheFrenchCaptainBougainvillehadlostatBolabola，onwhichhefeltasanEnglishbankerwoulddoafterasevererunuponhimforgold，whensuddenlyplacedinpossessionofafreshstoreofbullion。

Theavidityforirondisplayedbythesepoorislanderswillnotbewonderedatwhenweconsiderthatwhoeveramongthemwassofortunateastoobtainpossessionofanoldnail，immediatelybecameamanofgreaterpowerthanhisfellows，andassumedtherankofacapitalist。”AnOtaheitanchief，”saysCook，”whohadgottwonailsinhispossession，receivednosmallemolumentbylettingouttheuseofthemtohisneighboursforthepurposeofboringholeswhentheirownmethodsfailed，orwerethoughttootedious。”

ThenativemethodsreferredtobyCookwereofaveryclumsysort；

theprincipaltoolsoftheOtaheitansbeingofwood，stone，andflint。Theiradzesandaxeswereofstone。Thegougemostcommonlyusedbythemwasmadeoutoftheboneofthehumanforearm。Theirsubstituteforaknifewasashell，orabitofflintorjasper。

Ashark’stooth，fixedtoapieceofwood，servedforanauger；

apieceofcoralforafile；andtheskinofasting-rayforapolisher。Theirsawwasmadeofjaggedfishes’teethfixedontheconvexedgeofapieceofhardwood。Theirweaponswereofasimilarlyrudedescription；theirclubsandaxeswereheadedwithstone，andtheirlancesandarrowsweretippedwithflint。Firewasanotheragencyemployedbythem，usuallyinboat-building。Thus，theNewZealanders，whosetoolswerealsoofstone，wood，orbone，madetheirboatsofthetrunksoftreeshollowedoutbyfire。

Thestoneimplementswerefashioned，CaptainCooksays，byrubbingonestoneuponanotheruntilbroughttotherequiredshape；but，afterall，theywerefoundveryinefficientfortheirpurpose。Theysoonbecamebluntedanduseless；andthelaboriousprocessofmakingnewtoolshadtobebegunagain。Thedelightoftheislandersatbeingputinpossessionofamaterialwhichwascapableoftakingacomparativelysharpedgeandkeepingit，maythereforereadilybeimagined；andhencetheremarkableincidentstowhichwehavereferredintheexperienceoftheearlyvoyagers。Inthemindsofthenatives，ironbecametherepresentativeofpower，efficiency，andwealth；andtheywerereadyalmosttofalldownandworshiptheirnewtools，esteemingtheaxeasadeity，offeringsacrificestothesaw，andholdingtheknifeinespecialveneration。

Intheinfancyofallnationsthesamedifficultiesmusthavebeenexperiencedforwantoftools，beforetheartsofsmeltingandworkinginmetalshadbecomeknown；anditisnotimprobablethatthePhoeniciannavigatorswhofirstfrequentedourcoastsfoundthesameavidityforbronzeandironexistingamongthepoorwoad-stainedBritonswhoflockeddowntotheshoretoseetheirshipsandexchangefoodandskinswiththem，thatCaptainCookdiscoveredmorethantwothousandyearslateramongthenativesofOtaheiteandNewZealand。

For，thetoolsandweaponsfoundinancientburying-placesinallpartsofBritainclearlyshowthattheseislandsalsohavepassedthroughtheepochofstoneandflint。

TherewasrecentlyexhibitedattheCrystalPalaceacollectionofancientEuropeanweaponsandimplementsplacedalongsideasimilarcollectionofarticlesbroughtfromtheSouthSeas；andtheywereinmostrespectssomuchalikethatitwasdifficulttobelievethattheydidnotbelongtothesameraceandperiod，insteadofbeingtheimplementsofracessunderedbyhalftheglobe，andlivingatperiodsmorethantwothousandyearsapart。Nearlyeveryweaponintheonecollectionhaditscounterpartintheother，——themaulsorceltsofstone，thespearheadsofflintorjasper，thearrowheadsofflintorbone，andthesawsofjaggedstone，showinghowhumaningenuity，underlikecircumstances，hadresortedtolikeexpedients。Itwouldalsoappearthattheancienttribesintheseislands，liketheNewZealanders，usedfiretohollowouttheirlargerboats；severalspecimensofthiskindofvesselhavingrecentlybeendugupinthevalleysoftheWithamandtheClyde，someofthelatterfromundertheverystreetsofmodernGlasgow。*

[footnote……”Mr。JohnBuchanan，azealousantiquary，writingin1855，informsusthatinthecourseoftheeightyearsprecedingthatdate，nolessthanseventeencanoeshadbeendugoutofthisestuarinesilt[ofthevalleyoftheClyde]，andthathehadpersonallyinspectedalargenumberofthembeforetheywereexhumed。FiveofthemlayburiedinsiltunderthestreetsofGlasgow，oneinaverticalpositionwiththeprowuppermost，asifithadsunkinastorm……Almosteveryoneoftheseancientboatswasformedoutofasingleoak-stem，hollowedoutbyblunttools，probablystoneaxes，aidedbytheactionoffire；

afewwerecutbeautifullysmooth，evidentlywithmetallictools。

Henceagradationcouldbetracedfromapatternofextremerudenesstooneshowinggreatmechanicalingenuity……Inoneofthecanoesabeautifullypolishedceltoraxeofgreenstonewasfound；inthebottomofanotheraplugofcork，which，asMr。Geikieremarks，’couldonlyhavecomefromthelatitudesofSpain，SouthernFrance，orItaly。’”——SirC。LYELL，AntiquityofMan，48-9。